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The Multifaceted Femme Fatale: Female Sexuality as Portrayed in Chinese Literature

Definition

A femme fatale, literally translated to “fatal woman” in French, is a character and archetype typically found in literature and art that refers to a woman who leverages their beauty, charm, and sexual allure as well as tools of seduction to achieve some covert purpose that is usually compromising or deadly for their often male targets. As a sensual woman, a femme fatale’s love and enchantment gives her destructive power that often leads to the downfall of the men who are tied to her and in some cases, her fate is tied to that of her victim. In Chinese language and culture specifically, the idea of a femme fatale is embodied by the phrase 红颜祸水 (hóng yán huò shuǐ), which loosely translates to "red face source of disaster", often referring to a beautiful and seductive woman that subjugates a man which often leads to the man's loss of reputation, money, status, power, or even to wars and national tragedy. The Chinese phrase 尤物 (yóu wù) which translates to a rarity or a bewitched woman, is additionally used to encapsulate the qualities of a femme fatale figure.

Classification of Femme Fatales

Types of femme fatales can be broadly split into these three following categories:

State Toppler

On the more extreme end of the spectrum lies the “state toppler” version of a femme fatale figure who often appears in Chinese myths, literature, and history, characterized by a beautiful concubine who captivates a ruler to neglect his duties by taking advantage of his sexual desire, eventually causing the state to decline or collapse. Often, but not always, the state toppler woman wields destructive power due to her sexuality but is mainly the subject of male sexual indulgence and not a coercive, sexual pursuer herself. This archetype has been well documented and studied throughout history, existing and documented through the folklore and myths of many cultures. Western historical and ancient mythical examples include Queen Cleopatra of Egypt and Circe from Homer’s Odyssey.

Bao Si

Notable Examples in Chinese History

Historical examples of femme fatale figures, specifically those of the “state toppler” variant, in ancient Chinese history include most notably:

• Bao Si (792-771 BC, Zhou dynasty) was the concubine of the ancient Chinese sovereign King You of Zhou. King You was said to have made Bao Si his concubine in 779 B.C., choosing her over his then Queen Chen. Due to Bao Si’s melancholy disposition, King You tried to cheer her up by lighting the warning beacons that were usually used to summon the nobles and armies in times of danger. Eventually when a real attack was mounted against King You’s palace and the beacons were lit, none of the troops came because they lost trust in the King and thus led to the downfall of King You’s rule. This is a prime case of a state topple femme fatale in which the state toppler’s destructive power is encapsulated purely in her beauty and sexuality as the subject of the male’s indulgence but she herself is not a vicious sexual pursuer.

  

  Yang Guifei

• Yang Guifei (719-756, Tang dynasty) was the highest rank imperial consort of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang during the latter part of his rule. Bo Ju-yi’s Song of Lasting Pain as well as various literary works preserve and immortalize Yang’s alleged beauty as she was said to have a face that put all flowers to shame, all describing her beauty as exquisite, unnatural, and overpowering. Emperor Xuanzong was said to have been so captivated by Yang that he began to draw away from public duties and capitulating to all of Yang’s demands for she possessed not only a “sensual allure and great physical charms, but also because she was clever and smart, artful at flattery and making herself agreeable”. Crooked ministers and greedy nobles-men took advantage of Yang’s obvious sway over Emperor Xuanzong. Eventually, a foreign general An Lushan quickly ingratiated himself with Yang Guifei and subsequently started a rebellion, took power from the Emperor, and thus began the downfall of the Tang’s golden age. Yang Guifei embodies the femme fatale archetype as the culmination of her beauty, cunningness, and enchantment subverts and beguiles her male counterpart, leading to the Emperor and his state’s ultimate demise.

The Licentious (淫妇 yín fù)

The licentious woman (yinfu) is another facet of the femme fatale archetype, representing a vicious pursuer of sexual pleasure, contrary to the state toppler's role in the femme fatale dynamics. These wanton women are portrayed as sexually unconstrained, borderline nymphomaniac with an insatiable desire, and transgressing ethical relationship or sexual norms. In addition, they, like state topplers, harness their sexuality as a source of power but for purely selfish and manipulative reasons and essentially without virtue. Yinfus most notably come with a dangerous characteristic in which when they are depicted in literature, often leads to their demise as well as the cause of the downfall of their male, sexual partners.

The Power Hungry

The power hungry femme fatale falls on the more conservative side of the femme fatale spectrum in which she is an attractive woman who both causes distress and doom to the men who become involved with her and also simultaneously uses her sway and power over men along with lies and coercion to achieve her own interests or gain more power. From the perspective of the culture and gender norms of many of the dynasties of imperial China, although this type of femme fatale was not as overtly sexual or seductive, any notion of abusing female sexuality, independence, or showcasing any sexuality at all would have been denounced in the strongly patriarchal, misogynistic imperial China. Subsequently, the power hungry femme fatale figures in literature would often be punished through death, failure, or downfall to align with the cultural standards and the status of women at the time.

Diaochan - Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Character

Diaochan from Romance of the Three Kingdoms

In the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Diaochan is a beautiful, young lady, orphaned at a young age and taken under the wing and raised by the emperor's loyal minister Wang Yun. In the novel, she is directed by Wang Yun to carry out a scheme in order to overthrow and kill the tyrannical warlord Dong Zhuo, who held a deadly grip over the Han dynasty. The plan was a double snare that involved presenting Diaochan as a concubine to both Dong Zhuo and his foster son, Lü Bu in order to pit them against each other, incite jealousy between them, and ultimately trigger Lü Bu to the point of killing Dong Zhuo. Upon first being presented to Lü Bu by Wang Yun, Diaochan is immediately able to captivate Lü Bu with her beauty, dance, song, and seduction, and he promptly proposes. A day later, Wang Yun then presents Diaochan to Dong Zhuo, who is similarly instantly infatuated by Diaochan and immediately takes Diaochan to his residence. Diaochan begins to drive a wedge between the father and son by complaining of Lü's harassment in front of Dong and her dissatisfaction with Dong with Lü. This feud escalates until a hatred forms between Dong and Lü and finally, Lü and Wang Yun stage a coup d'etat and Lü kills Dong Zhuo.

As a character, Diaochan is depicted as possessing "unearthly beauty and skill". She is submissive towards all of Wang Yun's demands in the scheme, saying “but if there is any way I can serve you, I would welcome death ten thousand times before declining”, additionally not only showcasing her filial piety towards her adoptive father but also how objectified she was and utilized as a chess chip in a patriarchal society. Diaochan best embodies the state toppler femme fatale as she exemplifies the power of seduction in captivating a ruler. Her character additionally highlights an important distinction between the types of femme fatales portrayed in Chinese literature, as Diaochan herself is arguably not given any real agency or power and is simply being commandeered by Wang Yun to execute the plot at every step, and when she appears in the story, is only written as abiding to the plan by exploiting herself and her sexuality with no thoughts of objection or rather thoughts of her own. This can support the theme of femme fatales being written in literature to reflect the low position of women in the strong patriarchal Chinese society in two ways. Firstly, the mere depiction of Diaochan as having no real opinions of her own but rather serving Wang Yun is reflective of what was expected of her as a daughter in society,. Secondly, Diaochan's seductive tricks and sexual allures were only used as tools for overthrowing Dong Zhuo, not out of her own volition or desire for Lü Bu or Dong Zhuo. Since Diaochan can be viewed overall as a scapegoat for Wang Yun's mission and not having authority herself, she is regarded as successful and a heroine of sorts.

Relationship(s) with Male Partner(s)

Lü Bu

• Diaochan enchants Lü Bu immediately upon meeting him:

His glance clung to her, and she reciprocated with her own suggestive signs.

— Luo Guanzhong, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, pg 44

• Diaochan toys with Lü Bu using seduction, guile, and even playing into the damsel in distress trope, attempting to trick him to believe she is unhappy with Dong:

Assuming it was Lú Bu, she puckered her brows, feigning sorrow and dabbing at her eyes with a filmy scarf. Lü Bu observed her a good while be- fore moving away.

— Luo Guanzhong, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, pg 47

Lü Bu, Dong Zhuo, and Diaochan love triangle

Behind the bed Diaochan tilted her shoulders toward Lü Bu and pointed first to her heart and then to Dong Zhuo. Her cheeks were moist. Lü Bu felt his own heart crumble within him.

— Luo Guanzhong, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, pg 48

"Oh, General!" cried Diaochan, "even in the seclusion of my boudoir your name resounded like thunder. I thought you the foremost man of the age and never imagined another could subjugate you." Her tears rained down.

— Luo Guanzhong, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, pg 49

Dong Zhuo

• Upon meeting Diaochan, Dong Zhuo is also taken by her charms, and even lets his official business lapse for more than a month, showcasing Diaochan's state toppler abilities as her presence alone was enough to distract and enthrall Dong Zhuo to neglect his duties.
• Diaochan constantly manipulates Dong Zhuo by claiming Lü Bu had forced himself on to her to deepen the wedge between the father and son.
• Falls into the trap of a ceremony at which the current emperor was supposedly going to abdicate his throne for him. Diaochan plays into this and is overjoyed when he plays into their dupe, embodying the toxicity of a state toppler femme fatale.

Before departing, he told Diaochan, "When I am emperor, you will be made Precious Consort." Diaochan, who realized he was falling into the trap, feigned great pleasure and expressed profound gratitude.

— Luo Guanzhong, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, pg 55

Historical Context

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is set during the end of the Han dynasty and written during the Ming Dynasty. During the Han Dynasty, especially during the turbulent, war filled years of the Three Kingdoms period, women had very limited freedoms and especially under the oppressive rule of the historical figure, Dong Zhuo, women were often abducted and forced into marriages or made servants or consorts. The role of the women during society at this time reinforce and encourage the existence of state toppler archetypes in literature as if since women were already extremely objectified in real life at the time, in literature they were similarly reflected as such but portrayed with even more sexuality so as to suggest women could tread the precarious line between beauty and danger, perhaps trying to communicate to the audience of the time that due to the femme fatale nature of such a character as Diaochan, women should not be given more freedoms or expression.

Pan Jinlian - Outlaws of the Marsh

Character

Outlaws of the Marsh/Water Margin

Pan Jinlian, or Golden Lotus, was one of the few female characters in Shi Nai'an's Outlaws of the Marsh written around 1500. Originally born into an eminent family, she was eventually sent to a wealthy landlord named Zhang to become his house maid. Zhang was immediately taken by her beauty and forced himself on her and Pan Jinlian was sent away to be married to Wu Dalang, a dwarf and the older brother of Wu Song, the more handsome and tall, honorable young officer. Pan Jinlian is described as very beautiful and alluring but also shrouded in sexuality and desire. Her relationships with the men around her reveal her ruthless, strong-headed nature and depict her as very pursuant of her sexual needs and wants, using beguile and deceit to achieve such. In this way, Pan Jinlian best fits the licentious femme fatale type. Throughout the story, she is decidedly unhappy with her marriage to Wu Dalang and decides to transgress in pursuit of satiating her sexual desires and yearning for anyone who catches her eye. She is characteristically ambitious in this aspect and contrary to Diaochan in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Pan Jinlian's inner thoughts and desires are clearly exposed for the reader to accentuate her sexuality and revealing her amorous and adulterous intentions, for example when she first meets Wu Song and ogles him.

Although the licentious femme fatale was an archetype that was notoriously written to illustrate the elements of female sexuality that were so condemned in society, Pan Jinlian is ironically more independent as she exercises her sexuality to her advantage and makes decisions with agency and her own volition, something that Diaochan's character was restrained from. As a licentious femme fatale, she actually exploits the stereotypes and appropriates the ideals of her gender to achieve her ignoble desires. Furthermore, Pan Jinlian is written to shown very little virtue as all her talents and efforts are channeled towards schemes of sex and power and whatever standard virtues that women were supposed to exhibit during the time, such as obedience, shyness, faithfulness, and subservience to their husbands, Pan Jinlian only displays with a false pretense to further achieve her adulterous desires.

Granted, there is a dichotomy between agency and oppression in Pan Jinlian's character that ultimately epitomizes her licentious femme fatale nature. That is because she is shown to have agency in her decisions and exercising her sexuality to achieve her will, her fate and that of the men tied to her is ultimately death. This indicates that the licentious femme fatale is doomed to fall due to her ambition and the fact that she is given the faculty of using her own will, mainly through taking advantage of her enticing and sexual alluring nature. Her ultimate failure and violent death at the hand of Wu Song demonstrates she is fundamentally still oppressed despite having some agency throughout her story. This contrasts the fate of the state toppler who is given no agency but due to her being controlled by a man, does not meet an ill fate. It can be inferred that licentious femme fatales are curated by the author in this way to showcase and perhaps warn women of engaging a vicious and exploitative use of their feminine sexuality, making it seem only acceptable when it is to achieve the will of a man.

Relationship(s) with Male Partner(s)

Wu Dalang & Wu Song

• Pan Jinlian is overtly unfaithful and openly flirts with Wu Dalang's brother, Wu Song. She engages and relies on her feminine wiles of physical beauty, a "bewitching smile", and "swelling bosom" to make an insidious move on Wu Song, who rejects her indecency and forcefully tries to remind her of her place.

  Golden Lotus gazed at the handsome figure of Wu Song. "He's so big," she thought. "You'd never know they were born of the same mother. If I could have a man like that I wouldn't have lived in vain! With the one I've got I'm cursed for good! Three Inches Of Mulberry Bark - three-tenths man and seven- tcnths monster. What filthy luck! Wu Song beats up tigers. He must be very strong.... And I hear he's not married. Why not get him to move in? Who would have thought I was fated to meet my love here!

  — Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh, pg 179

  After they had downed several cups, Golden Lotu frankly scanned her eyes over the younger man's body. Embarrassed, Wu Song kept his head down and avoided her gaze. They finished a dozen or so cups, and he rose to leave.

  — Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh, pg 181

Whenever he returned home, whether early or ate, Golden Lotus had food ready. She served him with obvious pleasure. It rather embarrassed him. She was always dropping subtle hints. But Wu Song was' a man of solid virtue, and he paid no attention.

— Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh, pg 183

Her swelling bosom slightly exposed, her hair hanging down in a soft cloud, Golden Lotus smiled bewitchingly. "Someone told me you're keeping a girl singer in the east part of town. Is it true?"

— Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh, pg 184

Wu Song killing Pan Jinlian

• Wu Song is depicted as a man of solid virtue to showcase the great disparity between his and Pan Jinlian's character as by contrast, she is shown to have no virtue at all. For example, Wu Song rejects Golden Lotus's seduction and solicitousness and tries to put her in her place, however, Golden Lotus is cunning and lies to Wu Dalang by putting the blame on Wu Song.
• Pan Jinlian disregards Wu even after Ximen has attacked him, continues affair with Ximen. She exemplifies none of the qualities of a graceful, virtuous, loyal wife expected of her during that time and seems to only be interested in satisfying her nymphomaniac desires with her lover, fitting into the licentious femme fatale category.

  The next day Ximen inquired and learned there were no repercussions, so he met Golden Lotus as usual. They hoped her husband would die. Wu was ill for five days and couldn't leave his bed. When he wanted soup or water she wouldn't give it to him. When he called her she didn't answer. Each day she made herself op alluringly and went out, returning always with a rosy face: Wu several times nearly fainted from sheer rage, but she paid him no heed.

  — Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh, pg 217

• When it becomes evident that Wu Dalang was interfering with Pan Jinlian's affair with Ximen Qing, she schemes with Ximen Qing to commit murder and poison Wu Dalang. She even tries to hasten his death by suffocating him with a blanket. This shows her evil and fatal nature, characteristic of licentious femme fatales who are the most morally ambiguous on the spectrum due to their villainous tendencies.

He opened his mouth for another sip, and the girl tilted the cup and forced its entire contents down his throat. She let him fall back on his pillow and swiftly got off the bed.

Wu gasped. "My stomach hurtsI The pain, the pain! I .can't stand it!"

The girl grabbed two quilts from the foot of the bed and flung them over his face.

— Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh, pg 220

Ximen Qing

• Pan JInlian engages in an extramarital affair with Ximen after a happenstance encounter of Pan Jinlian dropping a bamboo rod on Ximen in passing. As she is set up to meet Ximen in Mistress Wang's tea house, Golden Lotus is noted to exchange provocative glances with Ximen indicating her sexual desires and indecent intentions with him.
• After Pan Jinlian schemes with Ximen to poison Wu Dalang, she deviously pretends to bemoan the death of her husband. In this way she is trying to fit into the "accepted" stereotypes of a faithful woman and wife in her society but this scene proves she only does so when convenient for own her good and under false pretenses which boldens her licentious femme fatale nature.

Golden Lotus commenced falsely wailing the departure of her family supporter. Reader please note, women's lamentations are of three kinds the world over: With both tears and sound it is called crying, with tears and without sound it is called weep- ing, without tears and with sound it is called wailing. Golden Lotus wailed.

— Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh, pg 222

Historical Context

From the author of Outlaws of the Marsh, Shi Nai'an's perspective and his cultural influence living and writing this novel during the Ming dynasty, it can be said that moral discourse over women's sexuality was discussed more than ever with the rise of two opposing cultural icons: the faithful, maidenly wife vs. the licentious, sexually indulgent woman. In this discourse, sexual purity was of utmost importance and deemed as a signal of female virtue entirely, meaning females would be judged not just for their action but attacked on their fundamental character if they displayed any form of sexuality. The filial, proper, and industrious woman rose to become a standard reference in the moral commentaries and discussions amongst male scholars and the licentious woman became a cultural villain. Confucian social and family order also overtook this time period. Confucian ideals struck a parallel between female chastity and political loyalty as a comparison was drawn between a female staying loyal to her husband as a male subject staying allied to his lord. This analogy only perpetuated and accentuated the moral contempt and condemnation of the licentious woman.

Outlaws of the Marsh is a fictional account of events during the 12th century, or during the Northern Song Dynasty. During this time period, there was a vigorous revival of Confucianism. Thus, a portrayal of women as such in Outlaws of the Marsh could have been used to highlight the licentious woman stereotype that Shi Nai'an had noticed arising during his own life time during the Ming dynasty. The status of women generally still declined compared to the previous Tang dynasty. Song Confucian teachers emphasized that widows should not remarry, women were not as active in politics, footbinding began during this dynasty.

In a link between history and literature, it can be hypothesized that the portrayal of the licentious femme fatale woman was an attempt to reinforce the Ming dynasty virtues of elevating and praising chastity, with Pan Jinlian's tragic and gory death serving as a force to put women like her in their "rightful" place in society, diminishing them and deterring other women from following her lead.

Wang Xifeng - Dream of the Red Chamber

Character

In the classic 18th century novel Dream of the Red Chamber, Wang Xifeng is a headstrong, powerful woman being from the Wang family and one of the most powerful women of the Jia clan, playing a significant role in the Rongguo household. As the de facto head of the house, Xifeng is known for her wit, intelligence, and great beauty. She is portrayed as ambitious, sharp, and manipulative to gain her own advantage, being both seductive and deceptively cunning. Throughout the story, she displays many of her wiles, of which include seducing Jia Rui, her cousin by marriage, to the point of tricking him to his ultimate demise, ingratiating herself with elder members to strengthen her position in the house, and abusing her power for profit and more power. These traits align her with the power hungry femme fatale type. Her corruption and exploitation is the ultimate catalyst to the Jia family downfall as she accepts a bribe to interfere with a lawsuit.

Wang Xifeng

Xifeng's manifestation of a femme fatale differs from other types in which in addition to the traditional method of harnessing power from one's female sexuality, Xifeng is interested in coveting real political and social power as well. Her downfall only serves to amplify the cultural and societal norms of her time in which women were not placed in positions of power or were antagonized for doing so. In this vein, the power hungry femme fatale is most connected to a standard femme fatale in the connotation and after effect of the femme fatale's demise. The aftermath signifies and sends a misogynistic message that women were not meant to wield such power and should be condemned for it. Similar to Pan Jinlian, Xifeng also holds agency throughout much of the novel, only ingratiating herself and employing acceptable feminine displays when it served her interest, for example her obsequious attitude to her more powerful elders like Grandmother Jia or a sweet feminine disposition to torture Jia Rui and get rid of him. However, like the licentious femme fatale, the power hungry femme fatale suffers a doomed fate as the reigning attitude towards powerful or sexual women was one of great disdain in society, and hence in literature as well.

Relationship(s) with Male Partner(s)

Jia Rui

• Xifeng is the target of Jia Rui's obsession as he lusts after her. Due to her quick wit and perceptiveness, Xifeng instantly catches on and begins plotting a treacherous and coy plan to be rid of Jia Rui.

We must have been fated to meet, cousin,’ said Jia Rui. ‘I had just slipped away from the party to take a little stroll in these peaceful surroundings. I never expected to meet my fair cousin here, but lo! So there must be a bond.’

He ogled her as he spoke with a fixed and meaningful stare.

Xi-feng’s sharp intelligence enabled her to penetrate without much difficulty the little game he was playing, and feigning an interest she did not feel, she answered him with a smile.

— Cao Xueqin, Dream of the Red Chamber, Ch 11

• Xifeng arranges a false rendezvous with Jia Rui in order to humiliate him, her flirtation and seductive wiles demonstrate her ruthlessness as well as her abuse of power and knowledge of Jia Rui's intentions with her. This makes her similar to a more modernized state toppler in which she herself is not a sexual pursuer herself but rather uses the fact that she can subjugate a man with her sexuality to her advantage.
  

Xi-feng decided that a further lesson would be needed to cure him of his folly and proposed another assignation.

...

Jia Rui, by now a mere automaton in the hands of his captors, obediently crouched down beneath the steps and was just beginning a series of calculations respecting his present financial predicament when a sudden slosh! signalled the discharge of a slop-pail’s stinking contents immediately above his head, drenching him from top to toe with liquid filth and causing him to cry out in dismay – but only momentarily, for the excrement covered his face and head and caused him to close his mouth again in a hurry and crouch silent and shivering in the icy cold.

— Cao Xueqin, Dream of the Red Chamber, Ch 12

Historical Context

Dream of the Red Chamber was written in the middle of the 18th century during the Qing dynasty and the events of the novel are presumed to take place during 18th century Chinese society. Not much progress had ensued since the Ming dynasty with regards to women's rights and the status of women in society. The virtue of women was still held to great moral importance and heralded in literature, especially praising chaste women. The chaste woman was enshrined, with widow chastity being regarded as the epitome of filial piety and even encouraged through monetary rewards. In a society like this, such a character like Wang Xifeng would then be categorically problematic as the negative image associated with female power prevailed in Qing dynasty China.