User:Generalissima/History of North America

A rewrite of History of North America.

General sources to use: Here: A Biography of the New American Continent, Labor and the Course of American Democracy: U.S. History in Latin American Perspective, Politics in North America: Redefining Continental Relations, Fields of Battle: The Wars for North America, The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America, 1500–2000, Penguin History of Canada,The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, History of the Caribbean: Plantations, Trade, and War in the Atlantic World, Mexico Since Independence, A Concise History of Mexico, The Oxford Handbook of Central American History, The Cambridge History of Latin America, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad Since 1750,

1662 French map of North America by Guillaume and Nicolas Sanson

Initial settlement

Main article: Peopling of the Americas

The earliest broadly accepted evidence of human habitation in North America dates to c. 15,500 - 15,000 years ago (c. 13,500 - 13,000 BCE), although earlier dates are supported by many archaeologists. Sites such as Cactus Hill in Virginia and various seemingly-butchered mammoth bone finds in the Great Plains date to around 20 kya (thousand years ago). However, no conclusive evidence (such as stone tools or human remains) have been found at the sites. In 2021, researchers dated fossilized human footprints at White Sands to c. 22 kya; however, possible inaccuracies in radiocarbon dating methods have rendered the find controversial.

Beringia

Disappearance of the Beringian Land Bridge from 21,000 years ago to present, with elevations in meters

During the Last Glacial Period, Beringia was a large landmass including portions of what is now Alaska and eastern Siberia. The central portion of this landmass, a portion of continental shelf including the Bering Strait, became traversable 30 kya, prior to the Last Glacial Maximum. However, by 23 kya, massive glaciers blocked passage from Beringia into the rest of the North America. The North American coast was not traversable until 17 kya, and a direct land passage was not possible until an ice-free corridor emerged along the eastern Rocky Mountains 14-15 kya. The earliest definite archaeological evidence in Beringia consists of stone tools produced at the Swan Point site in Central Alaska around 14.15 kya. However, earlier dates are likely, evidenced by signs of human habitation from 24-15 kya at Bluefish Caves in Yukon, and at approximately 32 kya at the Lake E5 site in northern Alaska.

The ancestors population to Native American emerged from a population which split from ancient East Asians around 36 kya (although contact and gene flow continued around 25 kya). This group also had contact and admixture with the Ancient Northern Eurasians following this, before becoming isolated in Beringia around 20,000 years ago. Another population, the Ancient Beringians, split from the ancestral Native Americans between 22 and 18 kya, either migrating into Beringia alongside them, or emerging in eastern Beringia itself.

Pre-Columbian era

Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, The People: A History of Native America, Fagan, Brian. 2005. Ancient North America, Fiedel, Stuart J. Prehistory of the Americas, Kehoe, Alice. America before the European Invasions, Mexico. Vol. 1, From the Beginning to the Spanish Conquest, The political economy of ancient Mesoamerica: transformations during the Formative and Classic periods, The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, The Caribbean before Columbus,

Main article: Pre-Columbian era

Mesoamerica

Further information: Mesoamerica

European colonization

The Atlantic World: Europeans, Africans, Indians, and Their Shared History, 1400–1900, Sauer, Carl O. Seventeenth Century North America, Sauer, Carl O. Sixteenth Century North America, . 'Asylum for Mankind': America, 1607–1800, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas, The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870, Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492-1830, A cold welcome: the Little Ice Age and Europe’s encounter with North America, Great Land Rush and the Making of the Modern World, 1650-1900, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History. Vol. 1, Atlantic America, 1492–1800, An Infinity of Nations: How the Native New World Shaped Early North America, ,The French in North America, 1500–1765, Les Nouvelles Frances: France in America, 1500–1815, an Imperial Perspective, In Search of Empire: The French in the Americas, 1670–1730, Insurrection or Loyalty: The Breakdown of the Spanish-American Empire, Conquest: Cortes, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico, Russia in Pacific Waters, 1715–1825, Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867, The Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder, 1530–1630, Mosquito empires: ecology and war in the Greater Caribbean, 1620-1914, The History of Capitalism in Mexico: Its Origins, 1521–1763, Government and Society in Central America, 1680–1840, Norse America: The Story of a Founding Myth, Northern Visions: New Perspectives on the North in Canadian History, Inuit of the Central Arctic, 1550-1940

Main article: European colonization of the Americas

Further information: Norse colonization of North America and Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories

Reconstruction of a Norse building at L'Anse aux Meadows

The Icelandic Norse likely became aware of Greenland during the early 10th century, and established settlements along its southern coast c. 985 CE. They had limited interactions with the Dorset culture far to the northwest, initially the only other inhabitants of the island; they were later joined by the Thule, the ancestors of the modern Inuit. Around 1000, Norse explorers discovered the main North American landmass. The Icelandic Sagas name three regions encountered by the Norse — Helluland, Markland, and Vinland — of unclear and disputed location. Vinland, generally placed within Atlantic Canada, is associated with various temporary settlements, including the L'Anse aux Meadows site, the only undisputed site of Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact outside of Greenland. Norse settlers had hostile relations with the native inhabitants of Greenland and Vinland, who they dubbed Skrælingjar. Intermittent expeditions to Markland likely continued until the 15th century and the abandonment of settlements in Greenland.

Christopher Columbus's 1492 expedition to America allowed for widespread European knowledge of the Americas. A series of large scale colonial conquests were initiated by the Spanish Empire. The conquest of Mexico was the largest scale of these campaigns in North America.

Trade and slavery

Further information: Atlantic slave trade and Triangular trade

Revolutions and independent states

The Americas in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850, The Atlantic World: A History, 1400–1888, Shaped by the West, Volume 1: A History of North America to 1877, Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848, American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750-1804, American Republics: A Continental History of the United States, 1783-1850, Empire of cotton: A global history, The Peoples of Canada: A Pre-Confederation History, Government and Society in Central America, 1680–1840

Further information: Atlantic Revolutions and Spanish American wars of independence

American Revolution

Main articles: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War

Haiti and the Caribbean

Further information: Haitian Revolution

Mexican War of Independence

Main article: Mexican War of Independence

Expansion and industrialization

America and the Americas, The Legacy of Conquest: Unclear Pasts of the American West, The Eternal Frontier: An Ecological History of North America and Its People, Empires, Nations, and Families: A New History of the North American West, 1800–1860, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansionism, 1860-1898,Changing Boundaries in the Americas: New Perspectives on the U.S.-Mexican, Central American, and South American Borders, The Epic Story of the Great Migrations that Made the American People, The republic for which it stands: The United States during reconstruction and the gilded age, 1865-1896, Empires, Nations, and Families: A History of the North American West, 1800-1860, American Colonies, The Peoples of Canada: A Post-Confederation History, The mexican frontier, 1821-1846: the american southwest under Mexico, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansionism, 1860-1898

Early 20th century

The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1940, Freedom from fear: The American people in depression and war, 1929-1945

World Wars

Further information: United States in World War I, Canada in World War I, and American theater (World War II)

Axis forces attempted to halt American supply lines to the United Kingdom during the Battle of the Atlantic. Various German naval engagements and convoy raids occurred in North American waters. The Aleutian Islands campaign, launched by a small detachment of Imperial Japanese forces against the American and Canadian militaries, was the only land campaign on the continent during the war.

Since 1945

A Comparison of Canadian and Mexican Postwar Development, The Myth of the North American City: Continentalism Challenged, From Bible Belt to Sunbelt: Plain-folk religion, grassroots politics, and the rise of evangelical conservatism, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974., A History of the Cuban Revolution, The Fire and the Word: A History of the Zapatista Movement, Drifting Together: The Political Economy of Canada- U.S. Integration,

Cold War

Main article: Cold War

References

Bibliography

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• Waters, Michael R. (2019). "Late Pleistocene exploration and settlement of the Americas by modern humans". Science (journal). 365 (6449). doi:10.1126/science.aat5447.
• Deverell, William; Hyde, Anne (2018). Shaped by the West, Volume 1: A History of North America to 1877. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520964372.
• Lothrop, Jonathan C.; Lowery, Darrin L.; Spiess, Arthur E.; Ellis, Christopher J. (2016). "Early Human Settlement of Northeastern North America". PaleoAmerica. 2 (3). doi:10.1080/20555563.2016.1212178.
• Hoffecker, John F.; Elias, Scott A.; O'Rourke, Dennis H.; Scott, G. Richard; Bigelow, Nancy H. (2016). "Beringia and the global dispersal of modern humans". Evolutionary Anthropology. 25 (2). doi:10.1002/evan.21478.
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• Benjamin, Thomas (2009). The Atlantic World: Europeans, Africans, Indians, and Their Shared History, 1400–1900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521850995.
• Brescia, Michael M.; Super, John C. (2009). North America: An Introduction. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781442603431.
• Russell, James W. (2009). Class and Race Formation in North America. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781442689725.
• Maschner, Herbert D.; Mason, Owen; McGhee, Robert (2009). The Northern World, AD 900-1400. Salt Lake: University of Utah Press. ISBN 9780874809558.
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