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Abbas Mirza
Portrait of Abbas Mirza, signed by L. Herr, dated 1833
Crown prince of Iran
Tenure20 March 1799 – 25 October 1833
PredecessorFath-Ali Shah Qajar
SuccessorMohammad Mirza
Born(1789-08-26)26 August 1789
Nava, Mazandaran, Qajar Iran
Died25 October 1833(1833-10-25) (aged 44)
Mashhad, Khorasan, Qajar Iran
Burial
Imam Reza Shrine
SpouseGlin Khanum
IssueMany, among them:
Mohammad Shah Qajar
Khanlar Mirza
Bahram Mirza
Bahman Mirza
Farhad Mirza
DynastyQajar
FatherFath-Ali Shah Qajar
MotherAsiyeh Khanum
ReligionTwelver Shia Islam

Abbas Mirza (Persian: عباس میرزا; 26 August 1789 – 25 October 1833) was the Qajar crown prince of Iran during the reign of his father Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (r. 1797–1834). As governor of the vulnerable Azerbaijan province, he played a crucial part in the two wars against the Russian Empire (1804–1813 and 1826–1828), as well as the war of 1821–1823 against the Ottoman Empire. He is also recognized for leading Iran's first reform and modernization attempts with the help of his ministers Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam.

The conflict in the Azerbaijan and Caucasus regions between Iran and the Russian Empire was prevalent throughout the time that Abbas Mirza was growing up. On March 20, 1799, he was made the crown prince and given the title of Nayeb-al-saltana (viceregent). Around the same time, he was appointed the governor of Azerbaijan, with Soleyman Khan Qajar and Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam as his adjutants. Following Russia's takeover of Ganja in 1804, Abbas Mirza was in command of the Iranian military counterattack during the first and second Russo-Iranian wars. Throughout the two wars, he fought against numerous Russian commanders in various engagements, scoring both victories and defeats. The Iranians ultimately lost both wars, agreeing to sign the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay, in which they ceded all of their holdings in the Caucasus, corresponding to present-day Armenia, Republic of Azerbaijan, and Dagestan.

In 1821, during interlude between the first and second Russo-Iranian war, increased Iranian-Ottoman tensions led to a new war. Abbas Mirza and his elder brother and rival Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah made a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire, the latter penetrating into Ottoman Iraq as far as the walls of Baghdad. Peace was made in 1823, in which both parties signed the Treaty of Erzurum that recognized the previous borders established by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639.

In an effort to make up for his losses by winning over less powerful foes and bolster his claim to the throne, Abbas Mirza invaded the areas east and northeast of Mashhad in the summer and fall of 1832, taking control of Khabushan, Sarakhs, and Torbat-e Heydarieh. Under continuous medical care by both Western and Iranian physicians, Abbas Mirza ultimately died of illness on 25 October 1833 in Mashhad. Fath-Ali Shah died the following year, being succeeded by Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza, who assumed the regnal name of Mohammad Shah Qajar (r. 1834–1848).

Background and early life

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Portrait of Abbas Mirza, attributable to Mihr 'Ali, dated c. 1800

Abbas Mirza was born on 26 August 1789 in the village of Nava in Mazandaran, northern Iran.[1] He was the fourth son of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (r. 1797–1834), the second Qajar shah (king) of Iran and part of the Qovanlu branch of the Qajar tribe.[2][3] His mother was Asiyeh Khanum, a daughter of Fath-Ali Khan Davalu and part of the Davalu branch of the Qajars.[2] This union was arranged by Abbas Mirza's grand-uncle Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (r. 1789–1797) in an effort to unite the Qovanlu and Davalu.[2][4]

Thus, the line of Abbas Mirza and his offspring served as the foundation for all of Agha Mohammad Khan's expectations for the continuation of his dynasty. During Fath-Ali Shah's rule in Iran, a European traveler heard a rumor that Agha Mohammad Khan would have chosen Abbas Mirza instead of Fath-Ali Shah as shah if he had lived longer. Fath-Ali Shah's eldest son, Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah, whose mother was a Georgian concubine, was excluded from the succession due to this obsession with settling tribal disputes amongst the Qajars.[5] A fierce hostility would grow between Abbas Mirza and Dowlatshah, something some people speculated that Fath-Ali Shah welcomed. Besides Dowlatshah, intense competition would emerge with other brothers; Mohammad Vali Mirza, a ferocious and uncontrollable person who would hold the governorship of Khorasan and then Yazd, and Hossein Ali Mirza, a persistent schemer would hold the governorship of Fars.[6] Like Fath-Ali Shah had been given the royal title of Jahanbani by Agha Mohammad Khan, he also gave his own sons and daughters a royal title. The title of dorr-e darya-e khosravy ("The Pearl of the Sea of Royalty") was given to Abbas Mirza.[7]

The conflict in the Azerbaijan and Caucasus regions between Iran and the Russian Empire was prevalent throughout the time that Abbas Mirza was growing up.[1] In 1797, at the age of eight, he was taken by Agha Mohammad Khan on a campaign against the Karabakh Khanate. He and the other princes stayed at Adina Bazar near Ardabil, and after Agha Mohammad Khan's murder that June, he was taken back to the capital of Tehran.[1] The death of Agha Mohammad Khan gave rise to a number of pretenders to the throne.[8]

Appointment as crown prince and governor of Azerbaijan

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After making sure that his competitors did not constitute a threat, Fath-Ali Shah ascended to the kingdom on Nowruz (Iranian new year) on 21 March 1798.[1] On March 20, 1799, he chose Abbas Mirza as the crown prince and gave him the title of Nayeb-al-saltana (viceregent).[1][2] Iranian sources report that the title was in line with Agha Mohammad Khan's wishes.[1] Abbas Mirza was given Soleyman Khan Qajar and Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam as his adjutants.[1] Mirza Bozorg, one of the most skilled statesmen of the early Qajar era,[9] served as the tutor and minister of Abbas Mirza.[2][4]

Around the same time, Abbas Mirza was appointed the governor of the vulnerable province Azerbaijan with Tabriz as his regional capital.[1] As the most rich and populous city in the realm, it would rise to prominence as the hub of a thriving trade with Europe for the remainder of the 18th-century.[10] In order to balance out Azerbaijan's regional autonomy, there were numerous less important seats in Kerman, Isfahan, and Kurdistan as well as at least three more strong princely seats in the south, west, and east. Hossein Ali Mirza was given the governorship of Fars and and the Persian Gulf provinces, where he preserved autonomy. In an identical fashion, Dowlatshah was given a sizable domain in western Iran. The princes were pushed to demonstrate their value by expanding their territories along Iran's borders in addition to restoring the economy and establishing peace in their lands.[11] Despite the fact that Abbas Mirza's brothers often settled down in the provincial capitals, he did not always reside in Tabriz.[1]

After becoming governor, Abbas Mirza was sent to defeat the Kurdish chieftain Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli, who was making a claim to Azerbaijan's territory.[1] But it was Soleyman Khan who was given actual leadership of the campaign.[2] After winning a battle near Salmas, Abbas Mirza marched to Khoy before heading back to Tabriz.[1]

First war with Russia

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Main article: Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)

Prelude

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Political map of the eastern part of the Southern Caucasus between 1795 and 1801

The reign of the Russian tsar (emperor) Alexander I (r. 1801–1825) saw an increased desire on the part of the Russians to increase their presence and influence in the Caucasus, where they had already shown interest since the 1760s. Prince Pavel Tsitsianov, who Alexander I appointed to oversee Caucasian affairs in 1803, had nothing against about using violence, but any infringement of Iran's control over the Caucasus was not something that the Qajar administration could just ignore. Since 1502, Iran had controlled the Caucasus and the Iranians saw it as a natural extension of their country.[12] In mid-January 1804, Tsitsianov invaded Ganja and conquered its fortress; its governor, Javad Khan, was killed, and between 1,500–3,000 residents were slaughtered.[12][13] Russian law replaced Islamic law, and the congregational mosque was transformed into a church. This marked the beginning of the first Russo-Iranian War. On May 23, 1804, Fath-Ali Shah ordered Russian forces to depart from Iranian territories in the Caucasus. Iran interpreted their unwillingness to comply with this as an act of war.[12]

Fath-Ali Shah designated Abbas Mirza as the leader of the Iranian army against the Russians, and gave the order to mobilize a sizable force of 20,000 soldiers towards Erivan. Since Abbas Mirza was only fifteen at the time, his leadership would have been more symbolic than actual, yet he nonetheless actively took part in the war and displayed bravery as a military commander. Fath-Ali Shah also assigned experienced tutors and commanders to assist Abbas Mirza, which included figures such as Mirza Bozorg, Soleyman Khan, Ali Qoli Khan Shahsevan, Ali Qoli Khan Sartip Qajar, Pir Qoli Khan Qajar, Sadeq Khan Qajar, and Mehdi Qoli Khan Qajar.[14]

War

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19th-century depiction of Fath-Ali Shah's victory over the Russians at Erivan in 1804. The painting is kept at the National Museum of Iran in Tehran

At the start of July, a Russian force led by Tsitsianov besieged the stronghold of Erivan. On July 7, Fath-Ali Shah brought new soldiers and provisions to Sadrak, near Erivan.[15] He took command the soldiers, thus assuming a more active role in the war. This marked the first and last time he would be this close to the battlefield during the Russo-Iranian wars. On July 8, Abbas Mirza moved to encircle the Russian army besieging Erivan with a sizable force (up to 50,000 soldiers, according to estimates). The Iranian troops did not manage to lift the siege due to the Russian artillery, and therefore attempted to stop supplies and reinforcements from getting to the Russians, starving the troops into retreat.[16]

In this way, the Iranian army would harass and starve the Russian troops while the defenders of Erivan held the Russian soldiers back. Tsitsianov promptly realized this tactic and attempted to make a trap for Abbas Mirza by feigning retreat so that he would chase him. Abbas Mirza discovered the trap and, at great personal risk, led a 10,000-man cavalry force in a risky assault into the center of the Russian army, forcing it to retreat.[16] In September, five of Tsitsianov's six generals concluded that his plan had failed, and forced him to break off the siege.[17][18]

In spring 1805, Abbas Mirza was granted permanent and complete control over the soldiers in the frontline, thus gaining complete control over all of Azerbaijan, Talish, Erivan, and Nakhichevan, but the latter three stayed under the control of local khans. From thenceforth, the war effort was led by the court of Tabriz, while the court of Tehran continued to exercise overall authority. By the start of 1806, Russia had a firm foothold in Georgia, incorporated Ganja, Qazzaq, and Shamshadil, seized a small portion of land in the northern part of the Erivan Khanate, and established their authority over the khans of Karabakh, Shirvan and Shaki, keeping small detachments in the capital cities of each of their khanates. In the same year, Hossein Khan Sardar was installed as the governor of the Erivan Khanate, which led to the region becoming semi-autonomous from Tabriz, which it still continued to work closely with.[19]

On 31 October 1808, Erivan was besieged by a Russian force led by Ivan Gudovich.[20] A portion of Abbas Mirza's forces led by Amir Khan Qajar stopped the Russian general Nebolsin from sending reinforcements to Gudovich.[21] Without Nebolsin, the back of Gudovich's besieging forces was exposed. The defenders of Erivan were successful in holding the Russians back, and a force of 5,000 soldiers led by Farajollah Khan Shahsevan and Amanullah Khan Afshar were sent to Erivan by Abbas Mirza.[22]

The Iranian forces were defeated in October 1812 at the battle of Aslanduz and in January 1813 at Lankaran, effectively bringing an end to the first Russo-Iranian War. Abbas Mirza had disregarded British officers' advice to place guards at Aslanduz in order to thwart Russian attacks. This led to Russian commander Pyotr Kotlyarevsky ambushing the Iranian soldiers twice, deal severe casualties, and seize most of Abbas Mirza's arsenal. With Abbas Mirza being forced withdrawal to Tabriz following his loss at Aslanduz, Kotlyarevsky used the opportunity to attack Lankaran in Talish. Since September 1812, the city had been controlled by a Iranian force that had ousted its khan Mir-Mostafa Khan due to his support of the Russians.[23] Kotlyarevsky attacked Lankaran, defeating and killing Sadeq Khan along with most of his 4,000 defenders.[24]

Aftermath

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Due to British pressure and promises, actual financial difficulties, and military difficulties elsewhere, Fath-Ali Shah ultimately conceded defeat to the Russians. On the recommendation of the chief minister Mirza Shafi Mazandarani and others, he grudgingly agreed to this arrangement in the hopes that the British, acting as the Russian emperor's intermediary, could secure a more favorable agreement for him. One observer hypothesized that Fath-Ali Shah's acceptance of peace with Russia was due to Iranian political officials' little knowledge of the world's affairs and their reliance on British envoy Gore Ouseley's pledge to advocate for the return of some of the territories under Russian occupation. It was well known that Mirza Shafi, who favored peace with the Russians, knew more about European politics than other politicians in Tehran. He had already come to the conclusion that the war with Russia was unwinnable, therefore he may have tried to stop additional land loss by convincing Fath-Ali Shah to make peace with Russia. Numerous domestic uprisings as well as economic issues were taking place in Iran.[23]

Abbas Mirza and Mirza Bozorg opposed making peace and expressed faith in Iran's capacity to reorganize and carry on the fight. Abbas Mirza's army had replenished both its manpower and its supplies between October 1812 and October 1813. By 1813, Abbas Mirza reportedly possessed more artillery than he did before the battle of Aslanduz, but low morale was present amongst the soldiers. Nevertheless, they were stopped by Fath-Ali Shah.[25] Mirza Shafi designated Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi as the only representative of Iran because Abbas Mirza and Mirza Bozorg refused to ratify any agreement that called for the loss of Iranian territory.[26] On 24 October 1813, Mirza Abolhassan signed the Treaty of Golestan in the Golestan village on behalf of Iran.[27]

Per the terms of the treaty, Iran conceded to Russia the sultanates of Shamshadil, Qazzaq, Shuragol, and the khanates of Baku, Derbent, Ganja, Shakki, Quba, Shirvan, Karabakh, and the northern and central part of Talish.[28][27] Moreover, Iran also had to abandon its claims over Georgia,[29] ultimately only retaining control over Erivan and Nakhichevan.[30] The position of the border in southern Talish and southern Karabakh continued to be up for debate between the two parties.[28] Russia acknowledged Fath-Ali Shah as the legitimate shah of Iran, but refused to designate Abbas Mirza as his heir in order to punish and isolate him.[27]

War with the Ottoman Empire

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Main article: Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)
An official copy of the Treaty of Erzurum. Persian manuscript, created in Qajar Iran, 19th century

The conflict between Iranian and Ottoman border authorities was a major factor in the decline of Iranian-Ottoman relations between 1818 and 1820. Political issues in the Kurdish principality Baban renewed the animosity between Dowlatshah and the Ottoman governors of Baghdad, Sulaymaniyah, and Shahrizur in the central and southern sections of the Iranian-Ottoman frontier. The relation between Abbas Mirza and the Ottoman serasker of Erzurum was also made worse due to a dispute over the control of the nomadic tribes that inhabited the northern frontier.[31] Abbas Mirza first opted for a diplomatic solution to the problems, and the British supported him in this decision. They made every effort to keep the Iranians and Ottomans from fighting each other, as it could weaken both sides and thus make it easier for the Russians to advance further south to India.[32][33]

The Iranians and Ottomans were unable to find a solution, and following the eruption of the Greek war of independence against the Ottomans in 1821, Abbas Mirza offered Russia that they make a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire. He may have believed that a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire would deter Russia from considering additional attacks against Iran or at the very least further weaken the Russian military. His offer was declined by Russia, who nevertheless encouraged Iran to attack the Ottomans, even offering them financial help. The Russians may have hoped that a conflict between Iran and the Ottoman Empire would weaken them both, thus making it easier for them to advance further south.[32]

In the same year, Dowlatshah invaded Ottoman Iraq, reaching as far as the walls of Baghdad.[1] Dowlatshah was forced to leave due to a cholera epidemic, which he later contracted himself in November. While a second Iranian force conquered Bitlis and pushed towards Diyarbakr, Abbas Mirza distinguished himself by capturing Bayazit and Toprak Qala and marching on to Erzerum. On May 1822 at Khoy, Abbas Mirza successfully defeated the Ottoman counterattack, but by this point, cholera had also spread throughout his force, leading him to sue for peace.[34] In contrast to earlier conflicts, no anti-Shia fatwas were ever declared by the Ottoman clergy to support the war. During peace negotiations, the Ottoman Shaykh al-Islam sent a letter to Abbas Mirza, in which he praised their friendship and referred Iran and the Ottoman Empire as "two great countries that are as one body."[35]

Second war with Russia

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Main article: Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)

Prelude

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In early 1825, the northern bank of Lake Gokcha, which the Iranians believed to be a part of their realm, was seized by the Russians under the orders of Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov, the governor of Georgia. The Russian army soon advanced further, capturing Balagh-lu as well.[36][12] The Iranians knew that these locations might be used as a staging ground for an attack on Erivan, therefore the significance of this went far beyond the sites themselves. Although Yermolov conceded that this was Iranian territory, he defended his action by claiming that Iran was clinging to a large portion of Karabakh. The Russians also constructed a small fort on the frontier with Erivan, which the Qajar crown prince Abbas Mirza protested against. In the middle of 1825, the fort was attacked by the troops of Sardar.[37] On 8 July, the Russians captured the town of Bash Aparan in the northern Erivan Khanate, deep within Iranian territory.[38]

In Fath-Ali Shah's court, two factions had developed during the course of building policy toward Russia. One faction advocated for peace with Russia, and the other for war. Both were heavily lobbying Fath-Ali Shah and Abbas Mirza. The first question at hand was what to do if Russia did not stop their occupation of Gokcha and Balagh-lu. The state of the Muslim minority under Russian authority and, lastly, whether and to what extent Russia had been weakened as a result of its internal crises, were secondary concerns.[39] Those who advocated for peace were Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi; the chief scribe Neshat Esfahani; the head of the royal office Manuchehr Khan Gorji; and the court translator and envoy Mirza Saleh Shirazi. In general, the peace party feared the capability of the Russian Empire and wanted armed conflict to be avoided at all costs. They were more accustomed to dealing with people from other cultures and knew more about Russia.[40]

Those who advocated for war were several prominent Islamic scholars led by Agha Sayyed Mohammad Esfahani; Fath-Ali Shah's new chief minister Asef al-Dowleh; Abbas Mirza's close advisor Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam II; and some of the exiled khans of the Caucasus, who had either been driven away by the Treaty of Gulistan or had fled to Iran after the treaty. The main stance of the war party was that the Russians had clearly insulted the Iranians and been aggressive towards them. Agha Sayyed Mohammad, who was on his way to meet Fath-Ali Shah, mentioned Fath-Ali Shah's responsibilities "both as Sovereign of Persia, and as the head of the Mohamedian faith" in a letter to Fath-Ali Shah. Agha Sayyed Mohammad also brought up the Russian annexation of Iranian territory and the treatment of Muslims. Furthermore, the war party's interpretation of Russian events was more optimistic than realistic, arguing that Russia was weak overall, especially in the Caucasus due to Yermolov's recent defeats and the Decembrist revolt in December 1825.[41]

To advise Fath-Ali Shah and formulate a course of action in this matter, the Council of Soltaniyeh gathered. The peace party at Fath-Ali Shah's court was ultimately outmanoeuvred and the final decision was to launch full-scale warfare against the Russians.[42]

War

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Despite Abbas Mirza's soldiers appearing to be unprepared for a large fight, Iran's entry into the war in the summer of 1826 started out successfully. This was due to two factors. Yermolov was initially embroiled in a struggle in Chechnya despite advocating for war; as a result, his men were unprepared for the war and were incapable to meet the approaching challenge. Second, with the support of their previous khans, the Muslim populace rose against Russians, as they had grown tired of being oppressed. In Shirvan, Ganja, Talish, Shakki and Karabakh (aside from Shusha), the stationed Russian troops were either driven out by the rebels or Iranian forces, or withdrew themselves. It is uncertain if rebellions occurred or were suppressed in Quba, Baku, Derbent and Georgia.[43]

On July 25 and 26, Russian and Iranian forces started to engage each other at Talish. Between July 28 and 30, the Russian army fought an intense battle against Sardar, who conquered Pambak and Shuregol in northern Erivan. Meanwhile, his brother Hasan Khan Sari Aslan made attacks further north, forcing the Russians to withdraw to Tiflis.[43] Between August 1 and 3, Bash Aparan was recovered by Sardar, who then started fighting the Russians at Gyumri. On August 12, Lankaran and Saliyan were conquered by the Iranian forces. During this period, a Russian battalion of 800 soldiers were ambushed and defeated by a force of 35,000 soldiers led by Abbas Mirza. Fath-Ali Shah's camp at Ardabil received 400 heads, while Tabriz received 400 POWs (including the commander and 17 officers as well as two cannons).[44]

While some of his troops were still fighting the Russians in Talish, Abbas Mirza besieged Shusha on August 6. According to Iranian American historian Maziar Behrooz, "At this point, a number of blunders spelled catastrophe and defeat." Abbas Mirza rejected the proposal by his maternal uncle Amir Khan Devellu-Qajar to attack Shusha's fortress, as he knew it would be a prolonged siege. Instead, he entrusted Amir Khan with the care of his eldest son, Mohammad Mirza (later known as Mohammad Shah Qajar), and ordered him to take control of Ganja. Colonel Iosif Reutt, the Russian commander of Shusha, disarmed the Muslims residing there, and then mounted an effective defense with the aid of the local Armenians. The siege of Shusha dragged on for a long time because Abbas Mirza's artillery was unable to break through. Iosif started negotiating with Abbas Mirza to buy himself some time while he waited for Russian reinforcements.[44]

In a letter to Abbas Mirza, Amir Khan demanded additional cannons and five or six Nezam-e Jadid regiments in order to battle the Russian reinforcements led by Lieutenant General Valerian Madatov. He was given explicit instructions by Abbas Mirza to collect the Russian weaponry and equipment that had been seized and to wait within the Ganja castle until he was done with Shusha.[44] But when Amir Khan learned of the impending Russian army led by Madatov (10,000 Cossacks, twelve infantry battalions, and twelve artillery pieces) he organized a 5,000-man cavalry force and, with Mohammad Mirza at his side, marched towards Shamkor. This led to the Battle of Shamkor on September 16, where Madatov defeated the forces of Amir Khan, who was killed. Mohammad Mirza withdrew to Ganja, which was shortly afterwards abandoned by its defenders, who withdrew to Shusha.[45]

On September 17, Ganja surrendered to Madatov without any opposition. With reinforcements, General Ivan Paskevich arrived in the Caucasus on September 22 and assumed command of the Russian forces on September 29,[46] thus replacing Yermolov.[37] A member of the Cossack elite from Ukraine, Paskevich embodied the goals of Russian imperialism. He had already proven himself effective throughout the Napoleonic Wars and against the Ottoman Empire in 1814.[47]

Painting of the Battle of Ganja, made by Franz Roubaud in 1887

The same day, Abbas Mirza marched towards Ganja, leaving a small force to carry on Shusha's siege. On October 13-17, the Battle of Ganja took place, close to the tomb of the famous Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi, who lived in the 12th-century. As was customary, Abbas Mirza assigned three of his sons to accompany various units within his 30,000-man army. Mohammad Mirza was in charge of one unit, while the two underage sons Jahangir Mirza and Khosrow Mirza were in two other units, being escorted by their tutors. But fearing for their safety in the midst of battle, Abbas Mirza gave the tutors the order to evacuate Jahangir Mirza and Khosrow Mirza. As a result of this maneuver, the center of his army fell apart, leading to his defeat. From this point on, loss was imminent for the Iranians as this was the war's most important fight. A witness to the Battle of Ganja noted the following; "The action was at first well contested; and had Abbas Mirza possessed the talent of a commander, the Russian power in Georgia would have been at an end."[46]

By 1827, Abbas Mirza was losing the war and he had to shift from attacking to defending. A fourteen-day raid south of the River Aras was carried out by Madatov in January. Etchmiadzin surrendered in April, while Abbasabad and Ordubad, two fortresses in Nakhichevan, came under siege in July. On July 7, Paskevich defeated Abbas Mirza, who had come to aid them, and both fortresses gave up. September saw the surrender of the impenetrable citadel of Erivan following a siege and intense bombardment, as well as the fortress of Sardarabad. Using eight 24-pounder heavy guns and four 4-inch mortars, Paskevich destroyed the stronghold walls of Erivan. Sardar escaped Erivan before it was taken, but other commanders including Hasan Khan Sari Aslan, Hamzeh Khan Anzali and Mahmud Khan Maqsudilu, were taken prisoner and moved to Tiflis.[46]

Despite having a 20,000-man army under the command of the chief minister, Asef al-Dowleh, Tabriz (the most rich and populous city in Iran[10]) surrendered without a fight on October 24, 1827. The city was given to Paskevich by an Islamic scholar.[48] Following the Russian evacuation of Tabriz, Fath-Ali Shah ordered his execution, and while Abbas Mirza and Fath-Ali Shah watched, Asef al-Dowleh would be publicly whipped for his timidity. On 25 January 1828, the Russians captured and plundered Ardabil, seizing its jewelry that dated back to the Safavid era.[49]

Aftermath

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On 2 February 1828, Abbas Mirza signed the Treaty of Turkmenchay, thus ceding Erivan and Nakhichevan as well as agreeing to significant war reparations and other concessions.[49] Azerbaijan and Abbas Mirza's personal fortune provided the majority of the money needed to pay for this; a minor portion came from the British, but none from the shah. Russia was able to put pressure on Iran because of the reparations obligation. The treaty also gave Russia an opportunity to get involved in Iranian politics, as the shah now required Russia's acknowledgment of the person he wanted to name as heir apparent.[50]

Later life and death

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In an effort to make up for his losses by winning over less powerful foes and bolster his claim to the throne, Abbas Mirza invaded the areas east and northeast of Mashhad in the summer and fall of 1832, taking control of Khabushan, Sarakhs, and Torbat-e Heydarieh.[1] Under continuous medical care by both Western and Iranian physicians, Abbas Mirza ultimately died of illness on 25 October 1833 in Mashhad.[2] Fath-Ali Shah died the following year, being succeeded by Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza, who assumed the regnal name of Mohammad Shah Qajar (r. 1834–1848).[1]

Military reforms

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Illustration of Abbas Mirza reviewing his troops. Made by Allahverdi Afshar in 1815.[51]

A reform of the Iranian army became necessary due to the conflict with the Russians, whose armies utilized modern technology and were structured according to modern ideas. Iran was in a situation resembling that of the Ottoman Empire in the early 18th-century. Abbas Mirza wore a Mongolian mail coat from the royal treasures when he went to battle in 1804; this was likely done partially for symbolical purposes. Even then, he was aware that Russian strategies and equipment were superior to Iranian forces, therefore he started to instruct his soldiers in European practices.[1] This marked the start of Abbas Mirza's Nezam-e Jadid ("The new [military] order"), a project to build an up-to-date army capable of fighting in a modern environment.[52][53] Its name and military reforms resembled that of the Ottoman Nizam-I Cedid reforms made by the Ottoman Sultan Selim III (r. 1789–1807).[54]

Abbas Mirza first employed Russian prisoners of war and deserters who provided practical instruction.[1] Samson Makintsev, a commander in Abbas Mirza's army who rose to the rank of general, was the most well-known of these Russian troops.[53] This approach of recruiting foreign instructors was strengthened when untrustworthy forces that had fought in France were sent to the Caucasian front during the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe. In 1819, a regiment of 800 men was made up entirely of Russian deserters. French instructors began working at Tabriz in 1807, but after Iran severed ties with France, British officers made up the majority of the training staff.[1] New ideas and administrative procedures were introduced with the Nezam reforms. Nezam troops started donning uniforms, initially in a color resembling Russian green and then French blue.[53] Since the new uniform resembled non-Muslim clothing and went against Islamic clothing, the traditionalist clergy at first opposed it. However, the state leaders were able to convince them that it was required for the defense of Muslim areas.[52] The title sarbaz ("one who is willing to sacrifice his head"), which is still used in the Iranian military today, was given to the soldiers.[53]

Abbas Mirza's jealous brothers, especially Dowlatshah, as well as conservative court members criticized Abbas Mirza and Mirza Bozorg for their ideas of military reform being based on a European model. Accusations of professing Christianity was even made towards Mirza Bozorg, who was the main driving force behind the reforms.[7] The army of Azerbaijan, which was the main force defending against the Russians, was under Abbas Mirza's command. As a result, it was better organized and more skilled than the rest of the imperial army. Abbas Mirza provided his soldiers with clothing and weapons. When James Justinian Morier visited in 1808/09, he estimated that Abbas Mirza's had 40,000 soldiers under his command; 22,000 cavalry, 12,00 infantry with an artillery force, and 6,000 Nezam infantry.[55]

Cultural activities

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Mirza Bozorg probably had a significant impact on Abbas Mirza's formal education, which appears to have been well carefully laid out. Abbas Mirza was familiar with Iranian historians' writings, the Shahnameh by Ferdowsi being his favorite book. Although Tabriz had its own court poets like Sabur of Kashan and Abol-Qasem Forugh, Abbas Mirza was not really interested in poetry. Numerous paintings, including portraits of Napoleon, the Russian emperor, and Sultan Selim III, were used to decorate the palaces in Tabriz and Ujan.[1]

It is conceivable that Abbas Mirza read books written about Europe in Ottoman Turkish and/or Persian since he could not understand English or any other European language well enough to read in those languages. One of the most recent books about England—the one European nation that seems to have captured Abbas Mirza's attention the most—was the Safarnameh composed in 1820 by Mirza Saleh Shirazi. It was one of several Persian works on Europe and the West that were available at the time.[56] Despite not understanding English, Abbas Mirza still owned a small collection of English-language literature, including the Encyclopaedia Britannica.[1]

Administrative, economic and building activities

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Significant amounts of money were spent fighting the Russians. Abbas Mirza attempted to resolve his problems by creating a comprehensive budget register, as British subsidies were insufficient, and his request for funds from Tehran was turned down by Fath-Ali Shah, who considered the richness of Azerbaijan to be sufficient for Abbas Mirza. With a ruznama-nevis assigned to each town to relay information, the state's long-standing intelligence service was revived. It also became illegal for men to to purchase their way into government employment. Due to a lack of authorities qualified to implement reforms, traditional methods remained in place in the financial sector and bureaucracy. However, with assistance from Europe, a few industrial measures (whose products were largely used to support the army) were able to get launched. Firearms, the search for copper reserves, a smelter close to Ahar, weaving mills, and other industrial facilities are a few examples.[1]

The situation of the travelers was not greatly improved. On the Sayen pass, which connects Ardabil and Sarab, a caravanserai was built. Abbas Mirza's construction efforts were minimal. In Tabriz, a maidan (square) was built around the barracks, the latter which the Scottish army officer and diplomat John Macdonald Kinneir considered to be sole attractive structure in the city. In 1818–1819, qanats were constructed outside the city, and a modest palace was being built.[1]

Personality and appearance

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According to the Scottish traveller Robert Ker Porter, Abbas Mirza was "rather above the ordinary stature;" his eyes were "dark and expressive...; his nose aquiline; his beard full, and like his finely-formed eye-brows, of a jet-black."[1]

Legacy and assessment

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He is recognized for leading Iran's first reform and modernization attempts with the help of his ministers Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam.[2]

Marriage and children

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As was customary for Qajars, Abbas Mirza had many children; 26 sons and 21 daughters.[1]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Busse 1982, pp. 79–84.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Werner 2012.
  3. ^ Amanat 1999, pp. 407–421.
  4. ^ a b Lahouti 2015.
  5. ^ Hambly 1991, pp. 142–143. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHambly1991 (help)
  6. ^ Hambly 1991, pp. 150. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHambly1991 (help)
  7. ^ a b Behrooz 2023, p. 51.
  8. ^ Bournoutian 1976, p. 164.
  9. ^ Amanat 2017, p. 188.
  10. ^ a b Amanat 2017, p. 189.
  11. ^ Amanat 2017, pp. 189–190.
  12. ^ a b c d Pourjavady 2023.
  13. ^ Daniel 2001, pp. 86–90.
  14. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 61.
  15. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 63–64.
  16. ^ a b Behrooz 2023, p. 64.
  17. ^ Atkin 1980, pp. 77, 120.
  18. ^ Tapper 1997, p. 152.
  19. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 73.
  20. ^ Behrooz 2023, pp. 91–92.
  21. ^ Behrooz 2023, pp. 92–93.
  22. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 93.
  23. ^ a b Behrooz 2023, p. 101.
  24. ^ Bournoutian 2021, pp. 225–226.
  25. ^ Behrooz 2023, pp. 101–102.
  26. ^ Bournoutian 2021, p. 232.
  27. ^ a b c Bournoutian 2021, p. 233.
  28. ^ a b Behrooz 2023, p. 102.
  29. ^ Bournoutian 1992, p. 21.
  30. ^ Amanat 2017, p. 195.
  31. ^ Shahvar 2020a, pp. 562–563.
  32. ^ a b Shahvar 2020a, p. 563.
  33. ^ Shahvar 2020b, p. 125.
  34. ^ Hambly 1991, p. 163. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHambly1991 (help)
  35. ^ Tucker 2006, pp. 561–564.
  36. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 116.
  37. ^ a b Aktin 2018, p. 20.
  38. ^ Behrooz 2023, pp. 116, 124.
  39. ^ Behrooz 2023, pp. 118–119.
  40. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 120.
  41. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 119.
  42. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 124.
  43. ^ a b Behrooz 2023, p. 125.
  44. ^ a b c Behrooz 2023, p. 126.
  45. ^ Behrooz 2023, pp. 126–127.
  46. ^ a b c Behrooz 2023, p. 127.
  47. ^ Amanat 2017, p. 211.
  48. ^ Behrooz 2023, pp. 127–128.
  49. ^ a b Behrooz 2023, p. 128.
  50. ^ Aktin 2018, p. 21.
  51. ^ Szántó 2021.
  52. ^ a b Amanat 2017, p. 199.
  53. ^ a b c d Behrooz 2023, p. 43.
  54. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 43 (see note 2).
  55. ^ Behrooz 2023, p. 47.
  56. ^ Shahvar 2020b, pp. 127–128.

Sources

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