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Denitrobacterium is a genus of Actinobacteria with a single species, in the family Coriobacteriaceae. Originally isolated from the bovine rumen, Denitrobacterium are non-motile and non-spore forming.[1] The only described species in this genus is Denitrobacterium detoxificans.[2] The specific niche of this bacterium in the bovine rumen is theorized to be the detoxification/metabolism of nitrotoxins and miserotoxin.[3][4][5]

Characteristics of Denitrobacterium detoxificans

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The sole species currently described in the genus Denitrobacterium, D. detoxificans, is a Gram-positive, obligate anaerobes .[1] In the study conducted by Anderson et al.,[1] all of the four strains (NPOH1, NPOH2, NPOH3, and MAJ1) are shown to possess high G+C content in their DNAs (60, 58, 56, and 60 mol%, respectively) and are closely related to one another (more than 99% sequence identity). Additionally, the closest intergeneric relative is Coriobacterium glomerans with 86% sequence identity, based on the 16S rRNA sequence comparison between the NPOH1 strain and sequences available in GenBank.[1]

Metabolism of Nitrocompounds by Denitrobacterium detoxificans

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In the bovine rumen, Denitrobacterium detoxificans metabolizes the following substrates through oxidation:[1][6]

The oxidation of these above compounds are coupled with the reduction of nitrocompounds such as:[1][6]

There are speculations as to how these nitrocompounds are metabolized. The primary mechanism of 3NPA and 3NPOH metabolism is the reduction to amines, i.e. β-alanine and aminopropanol, respectively.[7] β-alanine is further metabolized by ruminal microorganisms, whereas aminopropanol seems to be a final product.[7] It is also speculated that nitrite may be cleaved off from both 3NPA and 3NPOH as a minor metabolite, which is then further reduced to ammonia.[8] 3NPA gets metabolized by ruminal microbes more rapidly than 3NPOH[9][8][10]; therefore, 3NPA is less toxic to ruminants grazing on leguminous plants containing the conjugates of these nitrocompounds than 3NPOH[10].[7]

Plants Containing the Nitrocompounds Metabolized by Denitrobacterium detoxificans

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The above nitrocompounds are abundant in many forages in the forms of glycosides and glucose esters.[11] Miserotoxin is the most common glycoside of 3NPOH as 3-nitro-1-propyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, first isolated from Astragalus oblongifolius.[12] Other glycosides of 3NPOH include β-D-gentiobioside[13], allolactoside[14], laminaribioside[15], and cellobioside[16] from Astragalus miser var. serotinus.[11] Glucose esters of 3NPA are produced by species of the genera Coronilla[17][18][19], Astragalus[20], Indigofera[20][21][22][23], and Hiptage[24].[11] 3NPA is also produced by Astragalus canadensis in the forms of oxotetrahydrofuranyl[25] and isoxazolinone esters[26].[11]

History of Denitrobacterium

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Isolation of Strains NPOH1-3 and MAJ1

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The D. detoxifican strain NPOH1 was first isolated and cultured in the 1996 study by Anderson et al.,[3] investigating the metabolism of nitrotoxins such as 3-nitro-1-propanol and 3-nitro-1-propionate. Strains NPOH2 and NPOH3 were isolated from a roll tube containing an agar medium with energy-depleted rumen fluid (at 40% v/v), sodium carbonate, resazurin, L-cysteine-HCl, lipoic acid, vitamins, minerals, and Amisoy (a partially purified soy protein product by Quest International, at 0.08% w/v), supplemented with 9 mM 3-nitro-1-propanol and inoculated with 2 x 10-4 mL of nonenriched ruminal fluid. [3] The rumen contents containing NPOH1, NPOH2, and NPOH3 were obtained from two different cows (one with NPOH1 and another with NPOH2&3) at the National Animal Disease Center (NADC) in Ames, IA, USA. Strain MAJ1 was isolated from rumen contents of a cow on a milkvetch range harboring Astragalus miser var. serotinus in British Columbia, Canada.[1][3]

Classification of Denitrobacterium into Class Actinobacteria

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In the 2000 article, Anderson et al. proposed the assignment of the novel bacteria into the class Actinobacteria, subclass Coriobacteridae, order Coriobacteriales, family Coriobacteriaceae based on the high mole percent G+C content and 16S rRNA sequence.[1] The genus Denitrobacterium was included in the family Coriobaceteriaceae by Zhi et al. in the 2009 publication on addendum to the class Actinobacteria.[27]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Anderson RC, Rasmussen MA, Jensen NS, Allison MJ (2000). "Denitrobacterium detoxificans gen. nov., sp. nov., a ruminal bacterium that respires on nitrocompounds". Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 50 Pt 2 (2): 633–8. doi:10.1099/00207713-50-2-633. PMID 10758869.
  2. ^ LPSN lpsn.dsmz.de
  3. ^ a b c d Anderson, R C; Rasmussen, M A; Allison, M J (1996-10). "Enrichment and isolation of a nitropropanol-metabolizing bacterium from the rumen". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 62 (10): 3885–3886. doi:10.1128/aem.62.10.3885-3886.1996. ISSN 0099-2240. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Anderson, Robin C.; Rasmussen, Mark A.; Allison, Milton J.; DiSpirito, Alan A. (1997-07-01). "Characteristics of a nitropropanol-metabolizing bacterium isolated from the rumen". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 43 (7): 617–624. doi:10.1139/m97-088. ISSN 0008-4166.
  5. ^ Anderson, Robin C.; Rasmussen, Mark A. (1998-05-01). "Use of a novel nitrotoxin-metabolizing bacterium to reduce ruminal methane production". Bioresource Technology. 64 (2): 89–95. doi:10.1016/S0960-8524(97)00184-3. ISSN 0960-8524.
  6. ^ a b Ochoa-García, Pedro Antonio; Anderson, Robin C.; Arévalos-Sánchez, Martha María; Rodríguez-Almeida, Felipe Alonso; Félix-Portillo, Monserrath; Muro-Reyes, Alberto; Božić, Aleksandar K.; Arzola-Álvarez, Claudio; Corral-Luna, Agustín (2021-08-16). "Astragallus mollissimus plant extract: a strategy to reduce ruminal methanogenesis". Tropical Animal Health and Production. 53 (4): 436. doi:10.1007/s11250-021-02882-1. ISSN 1573-7438.
  7. ^ a b c Anderson, R C; Rasmussen, M A; Allison, M J (1993-09). "Metabolism of the plant toxins nitropropionic acid and nitropropanol by ruminal microorganisms". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 59 (9): 3056–3061. doi:10.1128/aem.59.9.3056-3061.1993. ISSN 0099-2240. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ a b Majak, W.; Cheng, K.-J. (1981-07-01). "Identification of rumen bacteria that anaerobically degrade aliphatic nitrotoxins". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 27 (7): 646–650. doi:10.1139/m81-099. ISSN 0008-4166.
  9. ^ Gustine, D. L.; Moyer, B. G.; Wangsness, P. J.; Shenk, J. S. (1977-06-01). "Ruminal Metabolism of 3-Nitropropanoyl-D-Glucopyranoses from Crownvetch". Journal of Animal Science. 44 (6): 1107–1111. doi:10.2527/jas1977.4461107x. ISSN 0021-8812.
  10. ^ a b MAJAK, W.; CLARK, L. J. (1980-06-01). "METABOLISM OF ALIPHATIC NITRO COMPOUNDS IN BOVINE RUMEN FLUID". Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 60 (2): 319–325. doi:10.4141/cjas80-041. ISSN 0008-3984.
  11. ^ a b c d Anderson, Robin C.; Majak, Walter; Rassmussen, Mark A.; Callaway, Todd R.; Beier, Ross C.; Nisbet, David J.; Allison, Milton J. (2005-03-01). "Toxicity and Metabolism of the Conjugates of 3-Nitropropanol and 3-Nitropropionic Acid in Forages Poisonous to Livestock". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 53 (6): 2344–2350. doi:10.1021/jf040392j. ISSN 0021-8561.
  12. ^ Stermitz, Frank R.; Norris, Frank A.; Williams, Miles Coburn (1969-07). "Miserotoxin, new naturally occurring nitro compound". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 91 (16): 4599–4600. doi:10.1021/ja01044a078. ISSN 0002-7863. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Majak, Walter; Benn, Michael H. (1988). "3-Nitro-1-propyl-β-d-gentiobioside from Astragalus miser var. serotinus". Phytochemistry. 27 (4): 1089–1091. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(88)80279-6. ISSN 0031-9422.
  14. ^ Majak, W.; Benn, M. H.; Huang, Y. Y. (1988-09). "A New Glycoside of 3-Nitropropanol from Astragalus miser var. serotinus". Journal of Natural Products. 51 (5): 985–988. doi:10.1021/np50059a032. ISSN 0163-3864. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ Benn, Michael H.; Majak, Walter (1989-01). "3-Nitro-1-propyl-β-d-laminaribioside from Astragalus miser var. Serotinus". Phytochemistry. 28 (9): 2369–2371. doi:10.1016/s0031-9422(00)97986-x. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Long, Melissa; Benn, Michael; Majak, Walter; McDiarmid, Ruth (1992-01). "3-nitropropyl glycosides ofAstragalus miser var.serotinus". Phytochemistry. 31 (1): 321–323. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(91)83063-q. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ Majak, W (1976). "Nitropropanylglucopyranoses in Coronilla varia". Phytochemistry. 15 (3): 415–417. doi:10.1016/s0031-9422(00)86835-1. ISSN 0031-9422.
  18. ^ Moyer, Barton G.; Pfeffer, Philip E.; Moniot, Jerry L.; Shamma, Maurice; Gustine, David L. (1977-01). "Corollin, coronillin and coronarian: Three new 3-nitropropanoyl-d-glucopyranoses from Coronilla varia". Phytochemistry. 16 (3): 375–377. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(77)80068-x. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ Majak, Walter; Benn, Michael (1994-03). "Additional esters of 3-nitropropanoic acid and glucose from fruit of the New Zealand karaka tree, Corynocarpus laevigatus". Phytochemistry. 35 (4): 901–903. doi:10.1016/s0031-9422(00)90635-6. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ a b Stermitz, F.R.; Lowry, W.T.; Ubben, E.; Sharifi, I. (1972-01). "1,6-Di-3-nitropropanoyl-β-d-glucopyranoside from Astragalus cibarius". Phytochemistry. 11 (12): 3525–3527. doi:10.1016/s0031-9422(00)89851-9. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Finnegan, R.A.; Stephani, R.A. (1968-02). "Structure of Hiptagin as 1,2,4,6-tetra-O-(3-nitropropanoyl)-β-D-Glucopyranoside, its Identity with Endecaphyllin X, and the Synthesis of its Methyl Ether". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 57 (2): 353–354. doi:10.1002/jps.2600570233. ISSN 0022-3549. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Benn, Michael; Mcewan, Denise; Pass, Michael A.; Majak, Walter (1992-07). "Three nitropropanoyl esters of glucose from Indigofera linnaei". Phytochemistry. 31 (7): 2393–2395. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(92)83284-6. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ Garcez, Walmir S.; Garcez, Fernanda R.; Honda, Neli K.; da Silva, Antonio J.R. (1989-01). "A nitropropanoyl-glucopyranoside from Indigofera suffruticosa". Phytochemistry. 28 (4): 1251–1252. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(89)80220-1. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Finnegan, R.A.; Stephani, R.A. (1968-02). "Structure of Hiptagin as 1,2,4,6-tetra-O-(3-nitropropanoyl)-β-D-Glucopyranoside, its Identity with Endecaphyllin X, and the Synthesis of its Methyl Ether". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 57 (2): 353–354. doi:10.1002/jps.2600570233. ISSN 0022-3549. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ Benn, M (1995-12). "Aliphatic nitro-compounds in Astragalus canadensis". Phytochemistry. 40 (6): 1629–1631. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(95)00482-m. ISSN 0031-9422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ Benn, Michael H; Majak, Walter; Aplin, Robin (1997-07). "A nitropropanoyl isoxazolinone derivative in two species of Astragalus". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 25 (5): 467–468. doi:10.1016/s0305-1978(97)00022-7. ISSN 0305-1978. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ Zhi, X.-Y.; Li, W.-J.; Stackebrandt, E. (2009-03-01). "An update of the structure and 16S rRNA gene sequence-based definition of higher ranks of the class Actinobacteria, with the proposal of two new suborders and four new families and emended descriptions of the existing higher taxa". INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SYSTEMATIC AND EVOLUTIONARY MICROBIOLOGY. 59 (3): 589–608. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.65780-0. ISSN 1466-5026.
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