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Republic of Burundi
Republika y'u Burundi
République du Burundi
Motto: "Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Iterambere"  (Kirundi)
"Unité, Travail, Progrès"  (French)
"Unity, Work, Progress" 1
Anthem: Burundi bwacu
Location of Burundi
Capital
and largest city
Bujumbura
3°30′S 30°00′E / 3.500°S 30.000°E / -3.500; 30.000
Official languagesKirundi, French, Swahili
Demonym(s)Burundian
GovernmentRepublic
• President
Pierre Nkurunziza
Independence 
from Belgium
• Date
July 1, 1962
Area
• Total
27,830 km2 (10,750 sq mi) (145th)
• Water (%)
7.8%
Population
• 1978 census
3,589,434
• Density
271/km2 (701.9/sq mi) (43rd)
GDP (PPP)2007 estimate
• Total
$2.897 billion[1] (142nd)
• Per capita
$371[1] (163rd)
GDP (nominal)2007 estimate
• Total
$974 million[1] (162nd)
• Per capita
$124[1] (182nd)
Gini (1998)42.4
medium inequality
HDI (2007)Increase 0.413
Error: Invalid HDI value (167th)
CurrencyBurundi franc (FBu) (BIF)
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+2 (not observed)
Calling code257
ISO 3166 codeBI
Internet TLD.bi
  1. Before 1966, "Ganza Sabwa".
  2. Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Program for benchmark estimates.

Burundi (IPA: [buˈɾundi]), officially the Republic of Burundi, is a small country in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the south and east, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Although the country is landlocked, much of the southwestern border is adjacent to Lake Tanganyika.

The Twa, Tutsi, and Hutu tribes have occupied Burundi since the country's formation five centuries ago. Burundi was ruled as a kingdom by the Tutsi for over two hundred years. However, at the beginning of the twentieth century, Germany and Belgium occupied the region, and Burundi and Rwanda became a European colony known as Ruanda-Urundi. Political unrest occurred throughout the region because of social differences between the Tutsi and Hutu, provoking civil war in Burundi throughout the middle twentieth century. Presently, Burundi is governed as a presidential representative democratic republic. Sixty-two percent of Burundians are Roman Catholic, eight to ten percent are Muslims and the rest follow indigenous beliefs and other Christian denominations.

Burundi is one of the ten poorest countries in the world.[3] Due to civil wars, Burundi has a low gross domestic product, unstable population growth, and sparse resources. Cobalt and copper are among Burundi's natural resources. Some of Burundi's main exports include coffee and sugar.

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Burundi

Early settlement

[edit]

Archaeological evidence shows that a pygmoid hunter gathering tribe, the Twa, first settled the region in 70,000 B.C.E.[4] However, approximately 5,000 years ago, the Hutu, a Bantu-speaking people from the mountainous regions of central Africa, immigrated and provided Burundi's first language.[5] The Hutu served as the main farming group in the country.[6] Following the Hutu, the Tutsi tribe settled the region in the late fifteenth century.[7] The Tutsi were descendants of Nilo-Hamitic-speaking people from Ethiopia.[6] From the Tutsi's early occupation in the region, agricultural techniques were introduced, and a feudal system was established within local chiefdoms.[8] The Tutsi's relationship with the Hutu remained stable during this period.[7]

With the settlement of the Tutsi and Hutu tribes, Burundi's kingdom expanded in land size until the seventeenth century.[9] At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Tutsi dynasty reigned over Burundi's kingdom.[6] The kingdom continued through rulers until the late nineteenth century.[9] King Mwezi IV reigned from 1852 to 1908. During this time he allied with the Germans in order to gain control over his opponents.[10] Mwezi's opponents, two chiefs named Maconco and Birori, were rebelling to take away Burundi's throne.[11] As a result, the kingdom of Burundi became a German colony in 1899.[2]

European conquest

[edit]

After its defeat in World War I, Germany handed control of Burundi to Belgium.[8] On October 20, 1924, Burundi officially became a part of the Belgian colonial empire and was known as Ruanda-Urundi, and consisted of Rwanda and Burundi. However, the Belgians allowed Ruanda-Urundi to continue its kingship dynasty.[2][12]

Following World War II, Ruanda-Urundi was a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority.[2] During the 1940s, a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country. On October 4, 1943, powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi's government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms. Chiefdoms were in charge of land, and lower sub-chiefdoms were established. Native authorities also had powers.[12] In 1948, Belgium allowed the region to form political parties.[8] These factions would be one of the main influences for Burundi's independence from Belgium.

On January 20, 1959, Burundi's ruler Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested the Belgian Minister of Colonies a separation of Burundi and Rwanda and a dissolution of Ruanda-Urundi.[13] Six months later, political parties formed to bring attention to Burundi's independence from Europe and to separate Rwanda from Burundi.[13] The first of these political parties was the African National Union of Ruanda-Urundi (UNARU). During Burundi's push for independence, instability and ethnic persecution occurred between the Hutu and Tutsi tribes. In November 1959, a dispute over land possession sparked a revolt in Rwanda between Hutu teachers and Tutsi soldiers.[13] At the same time, Tutsi refugees began to enter Burundi, fleeing ethnic persecution in Rwanda.[14] The Union for National Progress (UPRONA), a multi-ethnic unity party led by Tutsi Prince Louis Rwagasore and Christian Democratic Party (PDC) members, became popular throughout Burundi-Urundi. Following an UPRONA victory in legislative elections, Prince Rwagasore was assassinated in 1961 by a Greek national named Georges Kageorgis.[8] The country claimed independence in July 1, 1962,[8] and legally changed names from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi.[15] Mwami Mwambutsa IV was named king.[14]

Independence and civil war

[edit]

During Mwambutsa's reign, ethnic violence occurred throughout the region. From 1959 to 1962, Hutu refugees escaped to Rwanda to avoid persecution.[14] In turn, the Hutu in Rwanda murdered thousands of Tutsi, causing the Tutsi to flee to Burundi for freedom. While in Burundi, Tutsi fought against the Hutu. Many Tutsi soldiers killed Hutu peasants in retaliation for Hutu violence in Rwanda.[16] The Hutu managed to take power in Rwanda by winning Belgian-run elections in 1960.[17] On September 18, 1962, just over a month after declaring independence from Belgium, Burundi joined the United Nations.[18] During Burundi's move to become an independent nation, Hutu forces took control of the country, forcing the Tutsi out of the country; many fled to Rwanda to escape ethnic persecution and death. Also, the assassination of Burundi's Prime Minister Louis Rwagasore in 1961 further caused infighting between the two groups.[19] During 1962 and 1963, approximately 12,000 Tutsi were killed, while between 140,000 to 250,000 people escaped to Rwanda.[20]

From independence in 1962 until the elections of 1993, Burundi was controlled by a series of dictators.[21] The government was unstable, and two leaders—The Union for National Progress (UPRONA) leader Lois Rwagasore and Hutu Prime Minister Pierre Ngendandumwe—were assassinated in 1961 and 1965, respectively.[22] Throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, ethnic clashes arose between the Hutu and the Tutsi. As a result, an estimated 250,000 people died over thirty years.[23]

Peace agreement and present day

[edit]
Burundian Embassy in Beijing, China

In the early 1990s, Burundi began reforming the national army and government. The Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU) won Burundi's first democratic elections in 1993. FRODEBU leader Melchior Ndadaye, a Hutu, became Burundi's first elected President. A few months later, he was assassinated by a group of Tutsi army officers. Ndadaye's murder strained ethnic relations between the Hutu and Tutsi, which resulted a mass killing of Burundians. Years of instability followed, and unelected dictator Pierre Buyoya took power in a coup.[24]

To stop the Tutsi and the Hutu fighting in Burundi, peace agreements were formed between both parties. Both parties signed agreements in Arusha, Tanzania and Pretoria, South Africa, to share power in Burundi. The agreements took four years to plan, and on August 28, 2000, a transitional government for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years. After several more years of genocide against the Hutu, a cease-fire was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi-controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy).[25] In April 2003, FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye replaced Buyoya as Burundi's president.[26] In early 2005, ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi's government. Throughout the year, elections for parliamentary and president occurred.[27] To this day, conflicts between the Hutu and the Tutsi continue. As of 2008, the Burundian government is talking with the Hutu-led Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF)[28] to bring peace within the country.[29]

Politics

[edit]
Pierre Nkurunziza, president of Burundi
Main article: Politics of Burundi

Burundi's political system is a transitional presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The President of Burundi is the head of state and head of government. There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi.[8] On March 13, 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution,[30] which provided for a multi-party political process[31] and reflected multi-party competition. Six years later, on June 6, 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assembly's seats and making provisions for two vice presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000.[32]

Burundi's legislative branch is a bicameral assembly, consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate. As of 2004, the Transitional National Assembly consists of 170 members, with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38% of seats, and 10% of the assembly is controlled by UPRONA. Fifty-two seats are controlled by other parties. Burundi's constitution mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60% Hutu, 40% Tutsi, and 30% female members, as well as three Batwa members.[8] Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve for five year terms.[33]

The Transitional Senate has fifty-one members, and three seats are reserved for former presidents. Due to stipulations in Burundi's constitution, 30% of Senate members must be female. Members of the Senate are elected by electoral colleges, which consist of members from each of Burundi's provinces and communes.[8] For each of Burundi's seventeen provinces, one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen. One term for the Transitional Senate is five years.[34]

Together, Burundi's legislative branch elect the President to a five-year term.[35] Burundi's president appoints officials to his Council of Ministers, which is also part of the executive branch.[32] The president can also pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the Council of Ministers.[8] Members of the Council of Ministers must be approved by two-thirds of Burundi's legislature. The president also chooses two vice-presidents.[35] As of 2008, the President of Burundi is Pierre Nkurunziza. The First Vice President is Dr. Yves Sahinguvu, and the Second Vice President is Gabriel Ntisezerana.[36]

The Court Supreme (Supreme Court) is Burundi's highest court. There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court. Tribunals of First Instance are used as judicial courts in each of Burundi's provinces as well as 123 local tribunals.[32]

Provinces, communes, and collines

[edit]
Map of provinces
Main articles: Provinces of Burundi, Communes of Burundi, and Collines of Burundi

Burundi is divided into 17 provinces,[2] 117 communes,[8] and 2,638 collines (hills).[37] Provincial governments are structured upon these boundaries. In 2000, the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces, Bujumbura Rural and Bunjumbura Mairie.[3]

The provinces are:

Geography

[edit]
Map of Burundi
Main article: Geography of Burundi

The smallest country in Africa,[3] Burundi is landlocked and has an equatorial climate. Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift, the western extension of the Great Rift Valley. The country lies on a rolling plateau in the center of Africa. The average elevation of the central plateau is 5,600 feet (1,700 m), with lower elevations at the borders. The highest peak, Mount Heha at 8,810 feet (2,690 m),[38] lies to the southeast of the capital, Bujumbura. The Nile is a major river in Burundi.[39] Lake Victoria is also an important water source, which serves as a fork to the Kagera River.[40][41] Another major lake is Lake Tanganyika, located in much of Burundi's southwestern corner.[42]

Burundi's lands are mostly agricultural or pasture. Settlement by rural populations has led to deforestation, soil erosion and habitat loss.[43] Deforestation of the entire country is almost completely due to overpopulation, with a mere 230 square miles (600 km2) remaining and an ongoing loss of about 9% per annum.[44] There are two national parks, Kibira National Park to the northwest (a small region of rain forest, adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda), Rurubu National Park to the northeast (along the Rurubu River, also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu). Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations.[45]

Economy

[edit]
Main article: Economy of Burundi

Burundi is one of the poorest countries on the planet, owing in part to its landlocked geography,[2] poor legal system, lack of access to education, and the proliferation of HIV/AIDS. Approximately 80% of Burundi's population lives in poverty.[46] Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi, most notably in the 20th century,[12] and according to the World Food Programme, 56.8% of children under age five suffer from chronic malnutrition.[47] One scientific study of 178 nations rated Burundi's population as having the lowest satisfaction with life in the world.[48] As a result of poverty, Burundi is dependent on foreign aid.[2]

Burundi's largest industry is agriculture, which accounted for 58% of the GDP in 1997. Subsistence agriculture accounts for 90% of agriculture.[49] The nation's largest source of revenue is coffee, which makes up 93% of Burundi's exports.[50] Other agriculture products include cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, and hides. Some of Burundi's natural resources include uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper, and platinum.[51] Besides agriculture, other industries include: assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing, and light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, and soap. Burundi's currency is the Burundian franc (BIF); As of July 2008, 1,184 Burundian franc were equivalent to one United States dollar.[2]

Demographics

[edit]
A group of Burundian women rearing goats
Main article: Demographics of Burundi

As of 2008, Burundi was projected to have an estimated population of 8,691,005 people. This estimate explicitly takes into account the effects of AIDS, which has a significant effect on the demographics of the country.[2] Over 500,000 have been displaced due to the disease.[3] Many Burundians have migrated to other countries as a result of the civil war. In 2006, the United States accepted approximately 10,000 Burundian refugees.[52]

Most Burundians live in rural areas, and about six percent of the population live in urban areas.[53] The population density of around 315 people per square kilometer (753 per sq mi) is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.[8] Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% of the remaining population are Tutsi, and fewer than one percent are Twas.[54] The largest religion is Roman Catholicism (62%), followed by indigenous beliefs (23%) and a minority of Protestants (5%) and Muslims (10%).[3] The Anglican Church of Burundi claims over 10% of the population as members.[55] Reports indicate the Christian population may be as high as 90% with most of the remainder being Muslim.[56]

Culture

[edit]
Gitega drums
Main article: Culture of Burundi

Burundi's culture is based on local tradition and the influence of neighboring countries, though cultural prominence has been hindered by civil unrest. Since farming is the main industry in Burundi, a typical Burundian meal consists of sweet potatoes, corn, and peas. Due to the expense, meat is only eaten few times per month. When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gathering they drink impeke, a beer, from a large container. Each person receives a straw to symbolize unity.[57]

Crafts are an important art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists. Basket weaving is a popular craft for Burundian artisans.[58] Other crafts such as masks, shields, statues, pottery are made in Burundi.[59]

Drumming is an important part of Burundian cultural heritage. The world-famous Royal Drummers of Burundi, who have performed for over forty years, are noted for traditional drumming using the amashako, ibishikiso, and ikiranya drums.[60] Dance often accompanies drumming performance, which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings. The abatimbo, which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals, and the fast-paced abanyagasimbo are some famous Burundian dances. Some musical instruments of note are the flute, zither, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga, and the inyagara.[61]

Football in Burundi

Kirundi, French, and Swahili are spoken throughout Burundi.[2] Burundi's literacy rate is low, due to low school attendance. Ten percent of Burundian boys are allowed a secondary education.[62] Burundi's oral tradition is strong and relays history and life lessons through storytelling, poetry, and song. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina, and ivyivugo are types of literary genres existing in Burundi.[63]

Basketball and track and field are noted sports in Burundi.[64] Football is a popular pastime throughout the country, as are mancala games. In Burundi most Christian holidays are celebrated, with Christmas being the largest.[65] Burundian Independence Day is celebrated annually on July 1.[66] In 2005, the Burundian government declared Eid al-Fitr, an Islamic holiday, to be a public holiday.[67]

Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d "Burundi". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j CIA - The World Factbook - Burundi CIA. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
  3. ^ a b c d e Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, p. xlix.
  4. ^ Gates, H., Africana, p. 338.
  5. ^ Gates, H., Africana, p. 338–9.
  6. ^ a b c Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, p. l.
  7. ^ a b Gates, H., Africana, p. 339.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Burundi. U.S. Department of State. February 2008. Retrieved June 8, 2008. Cite error: The named reference "state" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ a b "Burundi - Political System and history". Institute for Security Studies. February 2005. Retrieved 2008-06-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  10. ^ Gates, H., Africana, p. 1373.
  11. ^ Chrétien, Jean-Pierre. Burundi: l'histoire retrouvée: 25 ans de métier d'historien en Afrique. Paris, France: Karthala, 1993. p. 395–396. ISBN 2865374491
  12. ^ a b c Weinstein, W., Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies, p. 5.
  13. ^ a b c Weinstein, W., Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies, p. 7.
  14. ^ a b c Timeline: Burundi. BBC. April 22, 2008. Retrieved on June 8, 2008.
  15. ^ Cook, C., What Happened Where, p. 281.
  16. ^ MacDonald, F., Peoples of Africa, p. 60.
  17. ^ Timeline: Rwanda. Amnesty International. Retrieved July 12, 2008.
  18. ^ United Nations Member States. United Nations. July 3, 2006. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
  19. ^ Ethnicity and Burundi’s Refugees. African studies quarterly: The online journal for African Studies. Retrieved July 12, 2008.
  20. ^ Uvin, Peter. Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to Mass Violence. Comparative Politics, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Apr., 1999). Published by: Ph.D. Program in Political Science of the City University of New York. p. 256.
  21. ^ Uvin, Peter, Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda, p. 256.
  22. ^ Allen, J.A.; et. al., Africa South of the Sahara 2004, p. 134.
  23. ^ Hagget, Peter. Encyclopedia of World Geography. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2002. ISBN 0761473068.
  24. ^ Allen, J.A.; et. al., Africa South of the Sahara 2004, p. 135–137.
  25. ^ Global Ceasefire Agreement between Burundi and the CNDD-FDD. November 20, 2003. Relief Web. United Nations Security Council. Retrieved July 24, 2008.
  26. ^ Allen, J.A.; et. al., Africa South of the Sahara 2004, p. 139–142.
  27. ^ Burundi: Basic Education Indicators. UNESCO. May 4, 2007. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
  28. ^ Haskin, Jeanne M. The Tragic State of the Congo: From Decolonization to Dictatorship. New York, NY: Algora Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0875864163 p. 151.
  29. ^ Liang, Yin. "EU welcomes positive developments in Burundi". China View. Xinhua News Agency. June 4, 2008. Retrieved on June 29, 2008.
  30. ^ Burundi. International Center for Transitional Justice. Retrieved on July 27, 2008.
  31. ^ Burundi - Politics. From "The Financial Times World Desk Reference". Dorling Kindersley. 2004. Prentice Hall. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  32. ^ a b c "Republic of Burundi: Public Administration Country Profile" (PDF). United Nations' Division for Public Administration and Development Management (DPADM): 5–7. July 2004. Retrieved 2008-09-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  33. ^ Puddington, A., Freedom of the World, p. 145.
  34. ^ Puddington, A., Freedom of the World, p. 145–146.
  35. ^ a b Puddington, A., Freedom of the World, p. 146.
  36. ^ Burundi - World Leaders. CIA. Retrieved on June 28, 2008.
  37. ^ Kavamahanga, D. Empowerment of people living with HIV/AIDS in Gitega Province, Burundi. International Conference on AIDS 2004. July 15, 2004. NLM Gateway. Retrieved on June 22, 2008.
  38. ^ O'Mara, Michael. Facts about the World's Nations. Bronx, New York: H.W. Wilson, 1999. p. 150. ISBN 0824209559
  39. ^ By Ash, Russell. The Top 10 of Everything. New York, New York: Sterling Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2006. ISBN 060061557X
  40. ^ Klohn, Wulf and Mihailo Andjelic. Lake Victoria: A Case in International Cooperation. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved on July 20, 2008.
  41. ^ Budge, E. A. Wallace, The Egyptian Sudan: Its History and Monuments. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J.P. Lippincott Company, 1907. p. 352.
  42. ^ Jessup, John E., An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Conflict and Conflict Resolution, 1945–1996, p. 97.
  43. ^ Bermingham, Eldredge, Christopher W. Dick, and Craig Moritz. Tropical Rainforests: Past, Present, and Future. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 2005. p. 146. ISBN 0226044688
  44. ^ Worldwide Deforestation Rates Food and Agriculture Organization of the U.N.: The State of the World's Forests 2003. Published on Mongabay.com. Retrieved on June 29, 2008.
  45. ^ East, Rob. African Antelope Database 1998. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature, 1999. p. 74. ISBN 2831704774.
  46. ^ Burundi Population. Institute for Security Studies. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  47. ^ Where We Work - Burundi. World Food Programme. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  48. ^ White, A. (2007). A Global Projection of Subjective Well-being: A Challenge to Positive Psychology? Psychtalk 56, 17–20. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
  49. ^ Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, p. xlvii.
  50. ^ Dinham, B., Agribusiness in Africa, p. 56.
  51. ^ Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, p. xlviii.
  52. ^ Kaufman, Stephen. U.S. Accepting Approximately 10,000 Refugees from Burundi. October 17, 2006. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  53. ^ MacDonald, F., Peoples of Africa, p. 62.
  54. ^ Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, ix.
  55. ^ Provincial Directory: The Anglican Church of Burundi. The Anglican Church of Burundi. Retrieved on July 5, 2008.
  56. ^ Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday. BBC. November 3, 2005. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  57. ^ Eating the Burundian Way. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  58. ^ Levin, Adam. The Art of African Shopping. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik, 2005. p. 36. ISBN 9781770070707
  59. ^ Burundi Arts and Literature. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  60. ^ Center for the Arts Presents the Royal Drummers of Burundi. The Mason Gazette. September 14, 2006. George Mason University. Retrieved on July 20, 2008.
  61. ^ Arts and Literature. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  62. ^ Learning in Burundi. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  63. ^ Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. p. 114. ISBN 0299102149
  64. ^ Sports and Recreation. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  65. ^ Burundi Holidays. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  66. ^ Trawicky, Bernard and Ruth Wilhelme Gregory. Anniversaries and Holidays. Chicago, Illinois: American Library Association. p. 110. ISBN 0838906958
  67. ^ Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday. BBC. November 3, 2005. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.

References

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  • Allen, J.A. (2003). Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara. New York, New York: Taylor and Francis Group. ISBN 1857431839. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Cook, Chris (1999). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century. London, England: Routledge. ISBN 1857285336. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Dinham, Barbara (1984). Agribusiness in Africa. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. ISBN 0865430039. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Eggers, Ellen K. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burundi. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, Incorporated. ISBN 0810853027. 3rd. edition.
  • Gates, Henry Lewis (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York, New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 0465000711. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Jessup, John E. (1998). An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Conflict and Conflict Resolution, 1945–1996. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313281122.
  • MacDonald, Fiona (2001). Peoples of Africa. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 0761471588. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Puddington, Arch (2007). Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties. Syracuse University: Lanham, Maryland. ISBN 978-0742558977.
  • Weinstein, Warren (1976). Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies: A Case Study of Burundi. Syracuse University: Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs. ISBN 0915984202. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Weinstein, Warren (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burundi. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, Incorporated. ISBN 0810809621. 1st. edition.
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