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Chronology of rulers

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Main article: List of Roman emperors § Crisis of the Third Century (235–285)

The crisis saw over 40 different people claim the title of emperor, but only about half of them managed to become legitimate de facto emperors through their recognition by the Roman Senate. Several of these men attempted to create stability by appointing their descendants as caesar, or co-augustus, resulting in several brief dynasties. These generally failed to maintain any form of coherence beyond one generation, although there were exceptions. With the exception of Claudius Gothicus (a few emperors' death are disputed), every single emperor died in a violent manner, often killed by their own troops.

The chronology mainly follows Kienast 2017 and Peachin 1990, with aditional information from the PLRE and Adkins 2019; see also Burgess 2014.

Roman Empire (235–285)

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  (#) – Usurpers / claimants
  (§) – Junior co-emperors
  (§) – Heir-apparents
Bust Coin Name Approximate reign Notes

Maximinus dynasty (235–238)

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Maximinus I "Thrax"
Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus 		March 235 – June 238[a]
(3 years and 3 months) 		Born c. 173 in Thracia, hence his nickname. Proclaimed emperor (aged 65) by his troops during a mutiny against Severus Alexander in Mogontiacum, Germania Superior. A man of humble origins, he was hated by the Roman Senate because he never visited Rome. Killed during the Siege of Aquileia against followers of Pupienus and Balbinus.
G. Petronius Magnus
(in Germania) 		late 235 A patritian ex-consul; said to have been proclaimed emperor after Alexander's murder. Herodian suggests that the accusations against him were actually fabricated.[1][2][3]
Titus Quartinus
(in Mesopotamia) 		late 235 / early 236[b] Ex-consul; reluctantly hailed by troops loyal to Alexander. He was later killed by the same man who proclaimed him emperor.[1][5][3]

(possible) 		Maximus
Gaius Julius Verus Maximus 		January/May 236 – June 238
(caesar under Maximinus I) 		Son of Maximinus, born c. 215; incorrectly called "Maximinus" by some sources. Named caesar (heir apparent) by his father, and later killed alongside him.[6]

Gordian dynasty (238–244)

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[c] Gordian I
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus 		c. April – May 238
(22 days) 		Born c. 158 in Phrygia. Proclaimed emperor (aged 80) in Africa during a revolt against Maximinus, later recognized by the Senate. Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son Gordian II.
Gordian II
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus 		c. April – May 238
(22 days) 		Son of Gordian I, born c. 192. Proclaimed emeperor (aged 46) alongside father in opposition to Maximinus by the Senate. Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army. The shortest reigning emperor on record.
Pupienus
Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus 		c. May – August 238
(99 days) 		Born c. 164. Proclaimed joint emperor (aged 74) with Balbinus in Rome after the death of the Gordians, in opposition to Maximinus. Made regents of the caesar Gordian III. Assassinated by Praetorian Guard one month after Maximinus' death.
Balbinus
Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus 		c. May – August 238
(99 days) 		Born c. 178. Proclaimed joint emperor (aged 60) with Balbinus in Rome after the death of the Gordians, in opposition to Maximinus. Made regents of the caesar Gordian III. Assassinated by Praetorian Guard one month after Maximinus' death.
Gordian III
Marcus Antonius Gordianus 		c. August 238 – February 244
(5 years and 6 months) 		Grandson of Gordian I, born in Rome on 20 January 222. Made caesar by Pupienus and Balbinus in May 238, succeeded as augustus at age 13, the youngest sole emperor. Died following the Battle of Misiche against the Persians (perhaps in a plot involving of Philip I).
Marcus Asinius Sabinianus
(in Africa) 		240 Revolted in Africa; killed by the governor of Mauretania.[8]

Philippus dynasty (235–238)

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Philip I "the Arab"
Marcus Julius Philippus 		February 244 – September 249
(5 years and 7 months) 		Born c. 204 in Roman Arabia, praetorian prefect under Gordian III. Proclaimed emperor (aged ~40) after the Battle of Misiche; killed at the Battle of Verona against Decius.

(possible) 		Philip II "the Younger"
Marcus Julius Severus Philippus 		c. July 247 – September 249
(co-augustus under Philip I) 		Son of Philip I, proclaimed caesar in 244 and later co-augustus in 247, at the age of 7. Killed as soon as news of his father's death reached Rome.
Pacatian
Tiberius Claudius Marinus Pacatianus 		c. 248 Commander in Moesia or Pannonia; killed by his soldiers shortly after.[9]
Jotapian
Marcus Fulvius Ru. Jotapianus 		c. 249 A member of Near East nobility, perhaps related to the ancient kings of Commagene, claimed descent from Alexander the Great. Revolted in Syria or Cappadocia.[10][11]
Silbannacus
Mar(cius?) Silbannacus 		c. 250 (?) Not mentioned in any written sources, only known for two coins.[12]
Sponsianus c. 250 (?) Existence disputed, only known for a few coins found in Transylvania.[10][13]

Decian dynasty (235–238)

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Decius
Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius 		c. September 249 – June 251
(1 year and 9 months) 		Born in Sirmium, Pannonia Inferior. City prefect in Rome and commander in Moesia and Pannonia. Killed Philip at the Battle of Verona; killed by the Goths at the Battle of Abritus, one of the worst Roman defeats in record.
Herennius Etruscus
Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius 		May/June – June 251
(less than a month, under Decius) 		Young son of Decius, proclaimed caesar and later augustus, killed with his father.
Licinian
Julius Valens Licinianus 		c. 250 Biefly mentioned by Aurelius Victor; fictionalized as Valens Senior in the Historia Augusta.[14][15][16]
Priscus
Titus Julius Priscus 		c. 250 Governor of Macedonia, proclaimed himself emperor in Philippopolis during a siege by Goths.[17][16]

Gallan dynasty (251–253)

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Trebonianus Gallus
Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus 		June 251 – August 253
(3 years and 2 months) 		Senator and commander, proclaimed emperor after the death of Decius. Killed with his co-emperors during his confrontation against Aemilianus.
Hostilian
Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus 		c. June – c. July 251
(1 month, under Gallus) 		Another son of Decius, proclaimed caesar and augustus by Gallus.
Volusianus
Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus 		August 251 – August 253
(2 years, under Gallus) 		Son of Gallus, named caesar and later augustus.

Non-dynastic (253)

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Aemilianus
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus 		c. July – c. September 253
(c. 3 months) 		Commander in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by his troops. Killed by his own troops after the usurpation of Valerian. Only ruled alone for a single month.

Valerian dynasty (235–268)

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Valerian
Publius Licinius Valerianus 		c. September 253 – c. June 260
(6 years and c. 9 months) 		Member of a senatorial family, proclaimed emperor by Aemilianus' troops. Dividided the empire in two, with himself ruling over the East while his son ruled over the West. Defeated and captured by the Persians at the Battle of Edessa, an unprecedentent disaster in Roman military history.
Gallienus
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus 		c. September 253 – c. September 268
(15 years) 		Son of Gallienus, named senior co-emperor at the age of 35, ruling over the Western provinces. Became sole emperor after his father's, having the longest reign since the start of the crisis. Faced a large number of usurpers and foreign invasions. Killed in a conspiracy led by Heraclianus, Claudius and Aurelian.
Valerian II
Publius Licinius Cornelius Valerianus 		256–258
(caesar under Valerian and Gallienus) 		Young son and heir of Gallienus, put on the guardianship of Ingenuus. Died in unclear circumstances.
Saloninus
Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus 		Autumn 260
(co-augustus under Gallienus) 		Young son and heir of Gallienus, proclaimed emperor by his troops during a battle against Postumus; killed just a few days later.
Ingenuus c. 260
Macrianus Major
Titus Fulvius Macrianus 		c. 261
Macrianus Minor
Titus Fulvius Junius Macrianus 		c. 261
Quietus
Titus Fulvius Junius Quietus 		c. 261
Regalianus
P(ublius) C(assius) Regalianus 		c. 261
Valens Thessalonicus c. 261
Lucius Mussius Aemilianus c. 261
Aureolus c. 268

Claudian dynasty (268–275)

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(possible) 		Claudius II "Gothicus"
Marcus Aurelius Claudius 		268 – 270
(1 year+) 		Born on 10 May 214, claimed descent from Gordian II, posthumously named a relative of the Constantinian dynasty. Proclaimed emperor (aged 54) after the murder of Gallienus. Defeated the Goths at the Battle of Naissus, hence his nickname. Died as a result of the Plague of Cyprian.
Quintillus
Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus 		270
(~27 days) 		Brother of Claudius, declared emperor after his death. Events of his reign are contradictory; died after a reign of a few weeks.

(possible) 		Aurelian "Restitutor"
Lucius Domitius Aurelianus 		270 – 275
(5 years+) 		Born on 9 September 214, proclaimed emperor (aged 56) in opposition to Quintillus. Named "restorer of the World" (restitutor orbis) after his unprecedented series of military victories. Reconquered the territories of the Palmyrene and Gallic Empire and built the Aurelian Walls in Rome. Murdered while preparing for a campaign against Persia.
Septimius 271

Tacitus dynasty (275–276)

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Tacitus
Marcus Claudius Tacitus 		c. December 275 – c. June 276
(c. 6 months) 		An aged man of senatorial background, proclaimed emperor by the army (and not the Senate, as claimed by the Historia Augusta). Died of illness (Victor, Eutropius) or murder (Zosimus).
Florianus
Marcus Annius Florianus 		c. June – September 276
(80–88 days) 		Maternal half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed himself emperor after his death but killed shortly after.

Non dynastic (276–282)

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Probus
Marcus Aurelius Probus 		c. June 276 – c. September 282
(c. 6 years and 3 months)
Bonosus 280
Procolus 280
Julius Saturninus 280

Caran dynastic (276–282)

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Carus
Marcus Aurelius Carus 		c. September 282 – c. July 283
(c. 10 months)
Numerian
Marcus Aurelius Numerianus 		c. July 283 – November 284
(1 year and 3/4 months)
Carinus
Marcus Aurelius Carinus 		Spring 283 – July 285
(2 years)

Gallic Empire (260–274)

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Portrait Name
Postumus
Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus
Laelian
Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus
Marius
Marcus Aurelius Marius
Victorinus
Marcus Piavonius Victorinus
Domitian II
Domitianus
Tetricus I
Gaius Esuvius Tetricus
Tetricus II
Gaius Esuvius Tetricus

Palmyrene Empire (270–273)

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Portrait Name
Septimius Vaballathus
Septimia Zenobia

Britannic Empire (286–296)

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Although the end of the crisis is often dated to the year 284 or 285, disturbs in Britain continued until 296.

Portrait Name
Carausius
Allectus
  1. ^ Maximinus' official dies imperii was almost certainly 23 March. He was co-opted into the sodales Antoniniani (the cult of Antoninus Pius) in 25 March, in Rome. However, it is impossible to know exactly how much time it would have taken for news of his proclamation to travel from Mainz to Rome. According to contemporary papyri: Maximinus was still recognized in Egypt by 7 April 238; the two Gordians are first mentioned in 13 June, Pupienus and Balbinus appear in documents dated to 21 July and 8 September, while Gordian III first appears in 21 September. News often took 1 month to travel from Rome to Egypt.
  2. ^ He reigned six months according to the Historia Augusta, but this must be an exageration.[4] Herodian's narrative suggest he was killed rather quickly.[1]
  3. ^ The bust in the Capitoline Museums labelled as Gordian I has no real historical basis.[7]
  • Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2014). "Emperors". Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 27–37. ISBN 9780816074822.
  • Craven, Maxwell (2019). The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome. Fonthill Media. ISBN 978-1781557389.
  • Jones, A. H. M.; Martindale, J. R.; Morris, John, eds. (1971–1992). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. (see PLRE)
  • Kienast, Dietmar; Werner Eck & Matthäus Heil (2017) [1990]. Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie [Roman imperial table: Basics of the Roman imperial chronology] (in German) (6th ed.). Darmstadt: WBG. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8.
  • Burgess, Richard W. (2014). Roman imperial chronology and early-fourth-century historiography. Historia Einzelschriften. Stuttgart: Steiner. ISBN 978-3-515-10732-7.
  • Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 90-5063-034-0.
  1. ^ a b c Herodian (c. 240), History 7.1.
  2. ^ Craven 2019, pp. MAGNUS.
  3. ^ a b Kienast 2017, p. 179.
  4. ^ Historia Augusta, "Thirty Tyrants"
  5. ^ Craven 2019, pp. QUARTINUS.
  6. ^ Kienast 2017, p. 178.
  7. ^ H. Stuart Jones (1912), A Catalogue of the Ancient Sculptures Preserved in the Municipal Collections of Rome: The Sculptures of the Museo Capitolino, p. 207, no. 64.
  8. ^ Craven 2019, pp. SABINIANUS.
  9. ^ Kienast 2017, p. 193.
  10. ^ a b Kienast 2017, p. 194.
  11. ^ Craven 2019, pp. IOTAPIANUS.
  12. ^ Craven 2019, pp. SILBANNACUS.
  13. ^ Craven 2019, pp. SPONSIANUS.
  14. ^ Liber de Caesaribus 29.3.
  15. ^ Craven 2019, pp. VALENS I.
  16. ^ a b Kienast 2017, p. 199.
  17. ^ Craven 2019, pp. PRISCUS.
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